LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Gl  FT    OF 


Class 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  COMPOSITION 


BY 


HENRY   G.    PEARSON 

INSTRUCTOR   IN    ENGLISH   AT  THE   MASSACHUSETTS 
INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY 
ARLO    BATES 


BOSTON,   U.S.A. 

D.   C.   HEATH   &   CO.,   PUBLISHERS 
1898 


COPYRIGHT,  1897  &  1898. 
BY    D.    C.    HEATH   &    CO. 


I  • 


V1 


Typography  by  J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.,  Norwood,  Mass. 
Presswork  by  C.  H.  Heintzemann,  Boston,  Mass. 


£0 
BARRETT   WENDELL 


170560 


OF  THE 

INIVERSITY 

OF 

fcCALIF 


PREFACE. 


THIS  book  has  been  written  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  course  in  English  Composition  given  to 
students  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
in  the  first  term  of  the  Freshman  year.  The  course 
covers  sixteen  weeks,  and  the  class  meets  twice  a  week. 
The  course  consists  of  written  work  and  recitations. 
For  the  first  of  these  each  student  is  expected  to 
write  every  week,  outside  the  class,  a  theme  of  from 
three  to  four  hundred  words  in  length.  This  theme 
is  delivered  to  the  instructor  at  the  beginning  of  one 
of  the  exercises,  is  read  by  him,  and  at  the  next  exer- 
cise is  handed  back,  with  his  criticisms  written  upon 
it.  In  accordance  with  these  criticisms  the  student 
revises  his  work,  in  the  first  part  of  the  term  by  re- 
writing the  whole  theme  in  the  classroom  under  the 
eye  of  the  instructor,  and  later  by  making  on  the 
original  copy  the  changes  indicated.  The  oral  work 
consists  of  recitations  on  the  substance  of  the  text- 
book, and  the  discussion  of  such  errors  as  the  students 
have  shown  themselves  most  prone  to  commit.  The 

part  played  in  this  course  by  the  text-book  is  thus  that 

iii 


IV  PREFACE. 

of  a  manual  from  which  the  student  may  learn  the 
general  principles  of  English  Composition,  at  the  same 
time  that  he  is  engaged  in  the  practical  work  of  writ- 
ing themes. 

For  the  reason  that  this  book  is  intended  to  be  used 
only  as  an  accompaniment  to  a  thorough  course  in 
theme-writing,  it  has  not  been  loaded  with  examples 
of  faulty  compositions,  bad  paragraphs,  incoherent  sen- 
tences, and  misused  words.  Experience  has  shown 
that  such  examples,  to  make  any  impression  upon 
students,  must  be  chosen  from  among  the  mistakes 
that  they  are  making  from  week  to  week  in  their 
own  themes.  The  usual  effect  of  all  sets  of  faulty 
sentences  and  paragraphs  collected  for  correction  is 
that  their  faults  strike  the  student  as  being  unreal  and 
factitious,  and  not  relevant  to  his  own  work.  If,  how- 
ever, a  sentence  from  one  of  his  own  themes  is  read 
to  the  class,  and  corrected  by  them,  his  weakness  is 
brought  home  to  him.  In  this  book,  accordingly,  only 
enough  examples  have  been  used  to  make  clear  the 
nature  of  the  fault  under  discussion.  Further  illus- 
trations the  teacher  must  find  —  and  in  doing  so  he 
will  have  no  trouble  —  in  the  themes  that  he  corrects 
from  day  to  day. 

This  book  deals  with  the-  general  principles  of 
composition.  It  is  assumed  that  the  student,  before 
beginning  it,  has  made  a  study  of  Barbarisms,  Impro- 
prieties. Solecisms,  Punctuation,  and  all  the  other 


PREFACE.  V 

matters  to  which  the  standard  of  good  use  is  applied. 
Nevertheless  the  youth  of  eighteen  years  is  none  too 
well  grounded  in  this  respect,  and  his  practice  in  cases 
governed  by  good  use  is  often  widely  at  variance  with 
the  rules  that  he  is  supposed  to  have  learned.  An 
Appendix  to  the  book  has  accordingly  been  added, 
containing  in  brief  form  a  statement  of  what  is  the 
established  usage  in  certain  matters  in  which  young 
writers  are  most  likely  to  be  at  fault.  This  Appendix, 
however,  is  intended  to  be  used  rather  for  reference 
and  review  than  for  first-hand  study  of  the  subjects 
that  it  discusses. 

While  I  am  indebted  to  many  hands  that  have  gener- 
ously helped  in  the  preparation  of  this  book,  my  debt 
is  chiefly  to  three  sources.  They  are  —  in  chrono- 
logical order  —  Professor  Barrett  Wendell,  my  classes, 
and  Professor  Arlo  Bates.  My  debt  to  Professor  Wen- 
dell is  that  of  the  pupil  to  the  teacher.  From  him  I 
have  learned  (at  first  hand,  by  good  fortune)  the  sys- 
tem of  Rhetoric  of  which  the  following  pages  are 
hardly  more  than  a  rearrangement  and  adaptation. 
So  completely  have  my  own  habits  of  thought  and 
methods  of  teaching  been  formed  by  this  system  that 
any  other  has  become  to  me  inconceivable ;  and  what 
appears  on  the  surface  to  be  a  bold  appropriation  of 
another's  ideas  is  in  reality  merely  the  result  of  a  gift 
for  docility.  To  Professor  Wendell  I  must  also  give 


vi  PREFACE. 

thanks  for  his  kindness  in  reading  the  proofs  of  the 
book.  To  my  classes  my  debt  is  that  of  the  experi- 
menter to  his  laboratory.  From  them  I  have  learned 
how  this  system  of  Rhetoric  must  be  presented  in  order 
to  stir  pupils  to  their  best  efforts  and  to  obtain  from 
them  the  most  intelligent  work;  in  brief,  from  my 
classes  I  have  learned  how  English  Composition  must 
be  taught.  To  Professor  Arlo  Bates  my  debt  is  that 
of  the  apprentice  to  the  master.  From  his  hearty  and 
thorough  criticisms  I  have  gained  such  a  degree  of 
knowledge  of  the  craft  as  has  made  it  happily  possible 
for  these  pages  to  be  less  amateurish  in  workmanship 
than  they  otherwise  would  certainly  have  been.  Be- 
ginning with  the  first  plans  of  the  book,  and  ending 
not  until  the  reading  of  the  final  proofs,  he  has  given 
his  assistance  most  unsparingly,  with  what  profit  to 
the  book  the  reader  may  see  for  himself. 

HENRY  G.  PEARSON. 

KENNEBUNKPORT,  ME., 
8  August,  1897. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAP.  PAGE 

PREFACE .  iii 

INTRODUCTION    .         .    .    .         .         .         .         .         .  ix 

I.   PRELIMINARIES 3 

THE    WHOLE   COMPOSITION. 

II.    SUBJECT  AND  TITLE            .......  11 

III.  UNITY 15 

IV.  COHERENCE         .........  26 

V.    EMPHASIS    ..........  34 

Summary  of  the  Chapters  on  the  Whole  Composition       .  46 

'  THE   PARAGRAPH. 

VI.    UNITY 53 

VII.    COHERENCE 61 

VIII.    EMPHASIS 71 

Summary  of  the  Chapters  on  the  Paragraph    ...  79 

,  THE    SENTENCE. 

IX.    UNITY 83 

X.    COHERENCE         .........  94 

XI.    EMPHASIS 105 

Summary  of  the  Chapters  on  the  Sentence        .        .         .116 

WORDS. 

XII.    GENERAL  AND  SPECIFIC 119 

XIII.    CONCLUSIONS       .......••  135 

APPENDIX           .........  141 

INDEX                  .      - 149 

vii 


INTRODUCTION. 


ALTHOUGH  this  book  is  somewhat  novel  in  plan  and 
in  arrangement,  it  is  founded  upon  what  must  be  the 
universal  experience  of  teachers ;  and,  more  than  that, 
it  follows  what  must  be  the  universal  practice.  A 
student  learns  to  write  as  a  boy  learns  to  swim, — by 
doing  it.  In  these  days  nobody  would  attempt  to 
teach  composition  by  mere  theorizing,  any  more  than 
one  would  attempt  to  teach  swimming  on  dry  land. 
In  actual  practice  the  learner  does  not  write  first 
words,  then  sentences,  then  paragraphs,  and  defer  the 
attempt  to  produce  a  complete  theme  until  he  has  mas- 
tered these.  This  is  the  manner  in  which  he  learns 
to  speak,  but  when  it  comes  to  the  study  of  composi  - 
tion  as  such,  he  begins  by  trying  to  make  whole  com- 
positions, —  often,  of  course,  short  ones,  but  complete 
as  far  as  they  go.  Not  until  he  is  able  to  write  simple 
themes  with  some  proficiency  is  he  in  a  condition  to 
learn  or  to  appreciate  details.  This  every  teacher  of 
composition  recognizes  in  actual  school  work ;  but,  so 
far  as  I  know,  it  is  for  the  first  time  adopted  as  a 
theory  in  the  following  pages. 

The  book  is  the  result  of  experience  and  experiment 
at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  The 
admirable  and  logical  scheme  of  Professor  Barrett 
Wendell  was  followed  in  the  classes,  but  it  was  found 


IX 


X  INTR  OD  UCTION. 

that  it  worked  better  when  it  was  reversed.  Whatever 
text-book  was  used,  it  was  impossible  not  to  begin  with 
some  instruction  in  regard  to  the  theme  as  a  whole. 
Students  must  be  trained  in  the  writing  of  the  whole 
composition  before  it  was  possible  for  them  to  seize 
and  to  appreciate  the  distinctions  involved  in  the  con- 
struction of  paragraphs  and  sentences,  or  in  the  selec- 
tion and  placing  of  words.  For  several  years  has  been 
frankly  used  the  method  which  is  here  presented.  The 
practical  efficiency  of  this  method,  and  the  desirability 
of  putting  into  the  hands  of  the  students  a  text-book 
which  conformed  to  the  practice  of  the  class-room  have 
led  to  the  writing  of  "The  Principles  of  Composition." 

The  recognition  of  the  wisdom  of  beginning  the 
study  of  composition  frankly  with  the  whole  composi- 
tion has  by  no  means  been  confined  to  the  Institute. 
If  I  am  not  misinformed,  the  same  experiment  has 
more  recently  been  tried  at  Harvard  with  much  suc- 
cess, and  in  various  parts  of  the  West  the  practical 
common  sense  of  a  number  of  efficient  educators  has 
evidently  been  leading  them  in  the  same  direction. 
The  method  is  one  of  those  inevitable  deductions  from 
experience  which  is  sure  to  be  made,  sooner  or  later, 
and  which  commends  itself  at  once  when  once  it  is 
formulated. 

The  success  of  any  teacher  of  course  depends  less 
upon  the  text-book  than  upon  the  personal  equation. 
The  ideal  text-book  is  a  volume  which  furnishes  neces- 
sary facts  and  the  best  system  of  mastering  and  arrang- 
ing them,  but  which  leaves  to  the  teacher  the  part  of 
presenting  them  and  to  the  pupil  the  task  of  grasping 
and  assimilating.  No  teacher. makes  a  student  master 


INTRODUCTION.  xi 

the  difficult  art  of  composition.  He  can  at  most  but 
direct  and  assist,  so  that  the  efforts  of  the  learner  shall 
be  exercised  to  the  best  advantage.  What  is  attempted 
in  the  present  volume  is  to  aid  the  instructor  and  the 
pupil,  without  interfering  with  the  proper  functions  of 
either  ;  to  furnish  a  system,  with  illustration  sufficient 
to  make  it  clear;  and  to  afford  such  hints  as  may  be 
most  serviceable  both  to  those  who  use  the  book  as  an 
aid  in  teaching  and  to  those  who  use  it  as  an  aid  in 
learning.  More  than  this  no  text-book  of  English 
composition  can  do  without  interfering  with  the  use- 
fulness of  the  teacher  and  the  progress  of  the  learner. 

The  importance  of  English  composition  as  a  means 
of  mental  discipline  is  so  great  that  it  should  be  kept 
in  view  by  the  maker  of  any  manual,  and  should  not 
be  lost  sight  of  by  any  teacher.  There  has  of  late 
years  been  a  constantly  growing  appreciation  of  the 
value  in  practical  life  of  the  power  to  use  written  lan- 
guage with  ease  and  precision.  It  has  been  abundantly 
recognized  that  the  study  of  this  art  is  not  only  an 
essential  but  almost  a  rudimentary  portion  of  all  tech- 
nical training.  Instructors  do  not  to-day  fail  to  im- 
press upon  their  pupils  that  the  man  who  cannot 
command  his  pen  is  handicapped  from  the  start  in 
business  relations,  and  that  in  professional  life  he  is 
working  at  a  very  great  disadvantage.  It  is  a  prac- 
tical age,  and  the  increased  attention  given  to  the 
study  of  English  is  sufficient  proof  of  the  practical 
worth  of  this  branch  of  education.  The  present  dan- 
ger, indeed,  is  that  immediate  utility  shall  be  so 
strongly  insisted  upon  that  too  little  attention  will  be 
paid  to  the  more  remote,  but  not  less  important,  office 


Xll  INTRODUCTION. 

of  composition  as  a  means  of  developing  and  strength- 
ening and  broadening  the  mind. 

The  decline  of  the  study  of  the  classics  makes  this 
office  of  composition  of  the  more  importance.  From 
causes  which  are  sufficiently  well  known,  Greek  and 
Latin  have  been  a  good  deal  discredited,  and  there  has 
especially  been  a  general  failure  to  find  a  place  for  the 
ancient  languages  in  technical  education.  The  instant 
and  practical  value  of  the  study  of  English  is  evident ; 
but  teachers  should  realize  and  remember  that  besides 
this  it  is  possible  to  get  from  the  living  tongue  much  of 
the  training  which  past  generations  got  from  dead  ones. 
Greek  and  Latin  being  so  often  laid  aside,  it  is  the 
more  important  to  insist  upon  the  culture  which  with 
proper  methods  may  be  gained  from  English. 

A  sense  of  the  application  of  form  to  thought  is  one 
of  the  most  important  of  the  results  of  the  study  of 
composition.  The  planning  of  the  simplest  theme,  if 
done  intelligently,  is  an  exercise  in  ordering  thought, 
and  in  properly  shaping  a '  series  of  ideas.  It  is  of 
great  importance  that  every  student  should  learn  that 
literary  form  is  a  matter  with  which  he  is  personally 
concerned ;  that  it  is  not  merely  a  refinement  of  fin- 
ished art,  a  triumph  of  the  trained  author,  but  a 
simple,  practical  necessity  for  every  person  who  puts 
pen  to  paper.  Even  more  necessary  is  it  for  the  learner 
to  perceive  that  this  same  literary  form  is  an  absolute 
essential  of  all  clear  thinking,  and  that  thought,  to  be 
adequate,  must  be  orderly.  From  the  study  of  English 
composition  the  pupil  should  be  made  to  see  that  his 
efficiency  not  only  as  a  worker  but  as  a  thinker  de- 
pends upon  his  power  to  give  to  his  ideas  an  orderly 


INTRODUCTION.  xiii 

arrangement  and  a  logical  sequence ;  he  should  learn 
the  value  of  form  in  thought  and  in  expression. 

A  habit  of  mental  accuracy  is  no  less  surely  the 
result  of  proper  training  in  composition  than  the  sense 
of  form.  No  learner  can  study  the  effects  upon  the 
finer  shades  of  meaning  of  Unity,  of  Coherence,  and 
of  Emphasis,  without  increasing  his  delicacy  of  percep- 
tion and  his  intellectual  precision  ;  nor  can  he  exercise 
the  mind  in  discriminating  between  words  with  a  view 
to  using  them  in  the  most  nicely  exact  sense  without 
advancing  in  accuracy  of  thought  and  expression.  The 
power  of  thinking  exactly  and  firmly  is  inseparable 
from  a  sensitiveness  to  the  values  of  language  ;  and  it 
is  from  practice  in  writing  that  this  sensitiveness  is 
best  obtained. 

An  appreciation  of  proportions,  mental  flexibility, 
and  breadth  of  view  are  no  less  among  the  results  of 
careful  training  in  English  composition.  It  is  not 
necessary  here  to  go  more  minutely  into  the  matter ; 
but  every  teacher  and  every  scholar  should  clearly 
recognize  that  this  branch  of  education  is  not  to  be 
followed  for  its  practical  utility  only,  great  as  that  is. 
They  are  to  look  upon  it  as  one  of  the  most  efficient 
aids  to  general  culture. 

Without  enthusiasm,  however,  little  of  the  good  of 
this  or  of  any  study  as  a  means  of  culture  can  be  real- 
ized. It  is  here  that  the  personal  equation  of  the 
teacher  tells  most  strongly.  Unless  the  instructor  is 
able  to  make  his  pupils  enjoy  their  work,  unless  he 
is  able  to  overcome  the  common  prejudice  against 
theme-writing,  unless  he  is  able  to  awaken  some  spark 
of  genuine  appreciation  of  the  delight  and  satisfaction 


xiv  INTRODUCTION. 

to  be  found  in  mastering  the  art  of  composition,  there 
is  small  hope  that  the  wide  possibilities  at  his  command 
will  be  realized.  It  is  possible  under  proper  conditions 
to  make  any  intelligent  boy  enjoy  writing ;  and  while 
ideal  conditions  are  not  easily  secured,  it  is  still  true 
that  it  is  generally  not  very  difficult  to  awaken  a 
healthy  interest  in  composition.  Until  this  is  done, 
it  is  certain  that  little  can  be  accomplished  which  is 
of  deep  or  lasting  value. 

The  more  closely  a  teacher  can  connect  any  study 

I  with  the  actual  life,  the  every-day  experiences  of  his 

I  pupils,  the  more  strong  is  his  hold  upon  their  interest. 

The   present  book  illustrates  how  easy  it  is  to  bring 

I  composition  into  close  relation  with  daily  happenings 

and  thoughts.     Any  man  thinks  and  talks  about  the 

things  which  he  sees  and  the  things  which  he  does ; 

it  is  but  a  short  step  to  the  writing  about  them.     It 

follows  that  this  branch,  if  it  be  properly  treated,  is 

one.  in  which  students  are  most  easily  interested. 

That  composition  has  been  pretty  generally  regarded 
as  dry  and  laborious,  I  am  well  aware.  Laborious  it 
is.  Nothing  worth  doing  is  likely  to  be  other  than 
laborious.  Pupils  are  not  repelled,  however,  by  the 
difficulty  of  a  study,  but  by  a  failure  to  find  its  rela- 
tion to  their  own  minds  and  mental  growth.  Dry 
can  composition  be  only  through  inadequacy  or  dul- 
ness,  —  oftener  found,  I  am  forced  in  honesty  to  add, 
in  teacher  than  in  learner.  Properly  approached  and 
appreciated,  it  is  a  labor  of  delight,  and  it  is,  moreover, 
\  a  labor  which  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  the  laying 
I  of  the  foundation-stones  for  all  knowledge  of  whatever 
sort  soever.  ABLO  BATES. 


PEELIMINAEIES. 


THE  PEINCIPLES  OF  COMPOSITION, 


CHAPTER   I. 

PRELIMINARIES. 

WHEN  a  student  has  assigned  to  him  the  subject 
of  his  first  theme  in  English  Composition,  it  is  well  for 
him  to  realize  at  once  that  here  is  a  piece  of  work  for 
his  wits.  The  collecting  of  pen,  ink,  and  paper  is  a 
necessary  preliminary,  and  the  process  of  putting  words 
upon  paper  is  undoubtedly  a  part  of  the  task.  Of  the 
work  of  producing  a  theme,  however,  these  make  but 
a  small  part  and  cause  him  but  little  trouble.  For  the 
rest,  the  work  which  is  really  important  and  difficult,  the 
writer  must  turn  to  his  brain. 

The  instruments  employed  in  theme -writing  are  words 
and  ideas.  In  such  studies  as  chemistry  and  drawing 
the  instruments  used  are  material  objects,  —  test  tubes 
and  Bunsen  burners,  dividers  and  T  squares.  As  might 
be  expected,  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  ease  with 
which  different  men  use  these  two  kinds  of  instruments. 
In  some  men  the  brain  works  best  when  it  is  engaged 
in  directing  the  movements  of  a  tool  held  in  the  hands 
or  the  motions  of  the  whole  body  in  active  and  trained 

3 


4  THE  PRINCIPLES   OF  COMPOSITION. 

exertion ;  in  other  men  the  brain  works  most  quickly 
in  dealing  with  abstractions,  —  in  learning  a  foreign  lan- 
guage, for  instance,  and  in  expressing  ideas  on  paper 
or  by  word  of  mouth.  The  men  of  the  -second  class 
are  likely  to  be  awkward  in  sawing  a  board  or  in  learn- 
ing to  ride  a  bicycle ;  the  men  of  the  first  class  usually 
have  difficulty  in  writing  a  theme.  Nevertheless, 
clumsy  although  a  man  is  in  expressing  his  ideas,  he 
must  take  especial  pains  to  learn  the  use  of  the  in- 
struments employed,  just  as  the  man  who  is  clumsy 
with  his  hands  and  his  body  must  exert  himself  to 
master  the  use  of  the  saw,  and  to  learn  how  to  keep 
his  balance  on  a  bicycle ;  and  in  theme-writing  the  in- 
struments are  the  English  tongue  and  a  man's  own  wits. 
Although  practice  in  English  Composition  gives  a 
student  familiarity  and  facility  with  the  instruments  of 
verbal  expression,  yet  he  must  not  for  a  moment  infer 
that  he  is  here  getting  a  kind  of  training  that  is  essen- 
tially different  from  the  rest  of  the  training  that  his 
head  and  his  hands  receive.  The  skill  of  the  man  who 
can  saw  a  board  straight,  of  the  man  who  can  ride  a 
bicycle  well,  of  the  man  who  can  play  his  part  in  a  game 
of  football,  and,  in  the  case  of  studies,  the  success  of  a 
man  in  the  chemical  laboratory  and  in  his  plates  in 
mechanical  drawing,  are  all  alike  the  results  of  train- 
ing in  a  few  general  and  fundamental  principles,  by 
which  the  affairs  of  the  human  race  are  carried  on. 
Selection  of  the  proper  material  for  the  work,  careful 
planning,  an  orderly  and  logical  arrangement,  a  sense 
of  the  relation  between  the  details  and  the  whole,  and 


PRELIMINAEIES.  5 

exactness  of  execution  are  the  elements  necessary  for  suc- 
cess in  a  game  of  football,  a  chemical  experiment,  the 
making  of  a  plate  in  mechanical  drawing,  and  the  writ- 
ing of  a  theme.  These  principles  are  the  essentials  of 
all  the  undertakings  of  life.  They  apply  to  English 
Composition  as  they  apply  to  everything  else ;  and  the 
student  should  look  upon  the  work  of  theme-writing 
as  simply  another  opportunity  for  training  in  the  ap- 
plication of  these  broad  and  general  principles  by  which 
all  the  acts  of  his  life  must  be  guided. 

The  first  thing  for  the  student  to  learn,  then,  is  how 
these  general  principles  apply  to  the  especial  branch  of 
study  called  English  Composition.  It  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  for  him  to  realize  that  all  education  is  one, 
governed  throughout  by  these  same  firm  principles ; 
but  he  must  also  remember  that  in  the  case  of  each 
study  they  have  a  particular  application.  Here  the 
point  is  to  discover  what  is  meant  by  selection  of 
material,  careful  planning,  orderly  arrangement,  rela- 
tion between  details  and  the  whole,  and  exactness  of 
execution,  when  they  are  applied  to  theme-writing. 
In  English  Composition  these  may  be  grouped  under 
three  general  heads,  which  are  called  the  principles  of 
Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis.  By  studying  these 
three  principles,  and  by  making  what  he  writes  conform 
to  their  injunctions,  an  inexperienced  writer  may  hope 
to  make  his  thinking  and  the  expression  of  his  thoughts 
clear  and  effective.  These  principles  are  broad  enough 
to  cover  the  construction,  not  merely  of  the  whole  theme, 
but  also  of  the  paragraphs  that  compose  it,  and  still 


6  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  COMPOSITION. 

further  of  the  sentences  that  make  up  the  paragraphs. 
Thus  by  the  study  of  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis 
in  connection  with  the  whole  composition,  the  paragraph, 
and  the  sentence,  the  writer  learns  how  these  general 
principles  of  thought  have  a  particular  application  to 
theme- writing. 

It  is  evident  that,  with  such  broad  and  even  universal 
principles,  the  authority  which  makes  them  binding  upon 
the  writer  cannot  come  from  a  set  of  decisions  rendered 
by  a  bench  of  rhetoricians  or  any  "  standard  authorities." 
There  are,  it  is  true,  certain  matters  connected  with 
composition  which  are  governed  by  definite  laws.  The 
practice  of  the  best  writers  of  national  reputation  at  the 
present  time  is  recognized  as  establishing  on  some  points 
precedents  that  all  must  follow.  Such  precedents  con- 
stitute what  is  called  "  good  use,"  and  furnish  a  standard 
by  which  is  decided  what  is  and  what  is  not  allowable. 
Good  use,  for  example,  requires  a  capital  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  sentence,  a  singular  verb  with  a  singular 
subject;  and  it  determines  what  words  belong  to  the 
language,  and  just  what  shall  be  the  special  meaning 
attached  to  each  word.  The  rules  of  good  use  have 
the  same  conventional  and  artificial  but  nevertheless 
rigid  authority  which  the  laws  of  politeness  have ;  their 
power  is  purely  arbitrary.  A  violation  of  either  has  the 
same  result :  it  hurts  nobody  but  the  offender.  For  de- 
tails, the  rule  of  good  use  is  sufficiently  binding.  The 
three  principles  of  composition,  however,  which  are  also 
principles  of  thought,  require  a  broader  foundation  of 
authority. 


PRELIMINARIES.  1 

The  basis  of  authority  for  the  principles  of  Unity, 
Coherence,  and  Emphasis  lies  in  the  fact  that  they 
represent  what  the  common  experience  of  mankind 
has  found  to  be  the  best  way  of  expression.  Men  in 
all  generations  who  have  tried  to  give  utterance  to 
their  ideas  by  word  of  mouth  or  to  put  them  on  paper 
have  encountered  difficulties,  struggled  with  them,  and 
met  with  success  good  or  bad.  What  they  have  dis- 
covered they  have  used,  profited  by,  and  so  felt  bound  to 
hand  down  to  those  who  should  follow  them.  Gradually 
evolving  from  the  attempts  of  writers  of  all  kinds, 
certain  general  principles  have  become  clear,  and 
made  their  value  evident  as  guides  for  a  man  who 
wishes  to  put  his  thoughts  in  language  that  shall  do 
his  work  exactly  and  forcibly.  With  the  constantly 
growing  realization  of  the  worth  of  these  principles 
of  composition,  came  stronger  and  stronger  support 
for  them,  as  representing  an  experience  more  wide- 
spread. Thus  the  observance  of  these  principles  is 
now  obligatory,  because  they  stand  for  the  general 
processes  of  thought  as  practised  by  all  men. 

Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  the  business  of  the 
young  writer  to  accept  the  principles  of  composition 
without  question.  They  are  not  invented  for  his  dis- 
comfort any  more  than  the  multiplication  table  is  a 
special  and  unreasonable  engine  for  the  annoyance  of 
his  boyhood.  In  each  case  what  so  provokes  his  im- 
patience and  discourages  his  freedom  and  originality 
is  nothing  but  a  compilation  of  the  experience  of 
his  predecessors.  If  he  stumbles  in  the  path  they 


8  THE  PRINCIPLES   OF  COMPOSITION. 

made,  it  is  not  so  much  because  the  way  is  rough 
as  because  his  steps  are  not  yet  steady.  The  child, 
accepting  the  statement  that  twice  two  makes  four, 
straightway  begins  to  make  operations  with  pencils 
and  pieces  of  chalk,  and  thus  learns  to  apply  his  new 
knowledge.  In  the  same  spirit  the  writer  should  take 
the  principles  •  derived  from  the  work  of  men  who 
have  known  how  to  think  and  to  write  clearly,  and 
in  his  own  writing  try  to  follow  those  principles  con- 
stantly. It  is  usually  worth  while  for  us  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  experience  of  our  predecessors.  No 
man  now  ever  thinks  of  entering  a  football  match 
if  he  is  not  dressed  and  armored  for  the  game.  In 
the  same  way  no  student  can  afford  to  disregard  the 
methods  that  generations  of  writers  have  proved  to 
be  wisest. 

Theme-writing,  then,  is  a  task  which  requires  the 
active  exertions  of  the  writer's  brain,  in  dealing  with 
words  and  ideas.  The  principles  by  which  his  work 
is  guided  are  the  principles  which  underlie  all  work 
and  thought.  In  English  Composition  the  special 
forms  that  they  take  receive  the  names  of  Unity,  Co- 
herence, and  Emphasis.  Finally,  the  authority  which 
enforces  the  observance  of  these  principles  is  not  the 
arbitrary  ruling  of  good  use,  but  the  fact  that  all 
trained  writers  do  their  work  in  accordance  with 
these  principles.  This  is  their  practice  because  they 
have  found  that  thus  they  are  best  able  to  make 
their  writing  clear  and  effective. 


THE   WHOLE   COMPOSITION. 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE  WHOLE   COMPOSITION:    SUBJECT   AND   TITLE. 

IF  a  man  has  a  theme  to  write,  he  must  have  some- 
thing to  write  about,  —  that  is,  he  must  have  a  sub- 
ject. The  conditions  under  which  he  prepares  his 
themes  make  it  the  best  plan  for  him  not  to  choose 
his  own  subject  either  at  random  or  after  a  long  and 
desperate  search,  but  to  take  the  subject  which  is  as- 
signed to  him  by  his  instructor  and  which  is  selected 
and  restricted  to  fit  his  especial  needs.  Further,  in 
order  that  he  may  lose  no  time  in  searching  through 
books  and  papers  for  information  on  his  subject,  and 
in  order  that  he  may  focus  his  whole  attention  on  the 
best  way  of  saying  what  he  has  to  say,  he  is  asked  to 
write  on  no  subject  of  which  he  has  not  already  some 
knowledge.  His  theme-subjects  are  accordingly  taken 
from  among  things  that  are  fresh  in  his  memory  or 
that  have  just  come  within  the  range  of  his  growing 
experience,  such  as  the  character  of  his  preparation  at 
fitting  school,  an  account  of  one  of  the  studies  which 
he  is  pursuing,  or  his  observations  on  the  conversation 
of  his  fellow-students.  On  subjects  of  this  description, 
moreover,  all  that  he  is  likely  to  have  to  say  can  be  said 
within  the  space  of  two  or  three  pages  of  theme-paper. 
When  his  subject  is  restricted  in  this  way,  the  writer 

11 


12  THE    WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

escapes  the  danger  of  attempting  a  piece  of  work  that 
is  altogether  beyond  his  powers,  his  time,  and  his  space 
limit.  Consequently,  with  a  subject  of  a  familiar  charac- 
ter and  restricted  in  scope  to  the  present  powers  of  his 
performance,  he  is  able  at  once  to  think  how  he  may 
best  present  his  ideas. 

The  advantage  that  the  writer  gains  from  having  as 
a  theme-subject  something  on  which  he  already  has 
some  knowledge  appears,  for  one  thing,  in  his  being 
able  immediately  to  set  to  work.  He  is  not  obliged 
to  ask  himself  in  despair,  "What  shall  I  say?"  but 
his  first  question  is  one  of  self-examination,  —  "  What 
do  I  think  ?  "  His  mind  is  already  stored  with  opin- 
ions, memories,  ideas,  or  convictions  on  the  subject 
proposed.  His  first  task  is  accordingly  to  examine 
his  mind  and  see  what  these  are.  If  he  can  become 
clear  in  regard  to  them,  he  has  accomplished  half  his 
work.  If  he  tries  simply  to  think  of  something  to  say, 
the  result  is  sure  to  be  vexation ;  but  he  is  in  the  right 
path  from  the  moment  that  he  begins  to  endeavor  to 
make  clear  to  himself  what  are  his  actual  thoughts  on 
the  subject  in  hand,  and  he  reaches  the  right  path 
soonest  when  the  subject  is  taken  from  his  familiar 
and  every-day  experiences. 

The  title  is  the  name  of  the  theme.  It  is  entirely 
distinct  from  the  subject  of  the  theme.  Its  relation 
to  the  subject  is  that  of  a  label  to  a  bottle.  The 
title  of  a  theme,  for  example,  is  "Football  News  in 
the  Boston  Herald";  the  subject  is  a  characterization 
of  the  football  news  printed  in  that  paper.  The  title 


SUBJECT  AND   TITLE.  13 

as  a  label  to  designate  the  theme  must  do  its  work 
conveniently  and  exactly ;  it  must  be  short  and  easy 
to  say,  and  it  must  be  a  perfect  fit,  —  neither  too  small 
nor  too  large.  "Chemistry"  and  "Amateur  Photog- 
raphy "  are  titles l  that  are  plainly  too  broad  for  any 
treatment  of  these  subjects  that  could  properly  be 
included  within  four  hundred  words.  If  these  titles 
are  restricted,  however,  so  that  they  read,  "My  Pre- 
paratory Work  in  Chemistry "  or  "  The  Freshman 
Course  in  Chemistry  at  the  Institute,"  and  "The 
Technique  of  Amateur  Photography,"  or  "  My  Expe- 
riences as  an  Amateur  Photographer,"  they  designate 
subjects  that  come  within  the  limits  of  a  three-page 
theme.  If,  again,  a  student  is  writing  on  the  character 
of  his  preparation  for  the  Institute,  he  must  fit  to  this 
subject  a  title  that  will  describe  it  exactly.  The  fol- 
lowing are  titles  good,  bad,  and  indifferent,  that  may 
suggest  themselves  to  him :  — 

How  I  Prepared. 
My  Preparation. 

Three  Years  at  the  B High  School. 

The  Scientific  Course  at  M Academy. 

My  Preparation  for  the  Institute. 

The  G—   -  School  and  What  it  Did  to  Prepare  Me  for 
the  Institute. 

Of  these  titles,  only  that  one  may  be  chosen  which 
unquestionably  fits  the  subject  as  the  writer  intends 
to  present  it,  and  which  is  also  conveniently  short. 

1  For  alternative  examples  see  p.  47. 


14  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

The  title  will  then  designate  the  theme  with  brevity 
and  precision. 

On  one  point,  however,  there  must  be  no  mistake. 
As  the  title  is  entirely  distinct  from  the  theme,  it  must 
never  be  allowed  to  connect  itself  in  any  way  with  the 
first  sentence  of  the  theme.  The  opening  sentence 
should  always  read  as  the  real  beginning,  and  should 
never  imply  knowledge  of  any  word  or  phrase  con- 
tained in  the  title.  An  example  will  show  a  common 
way  in  which  this  rule  is  disregarded.  Of  a  theme 
entitled  "What  my  Fitting  School  Needs  Most,"  the 
first  sentence  is,  "  It  needs  most  a  gymnasium."  Here 
the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun  "it"  is  in  the  title, 
and  the  sentence  taken  by  itself  is  unintelligible.  In 
another  theme  with  the  same  title,  the  first  words  are, 
"  In  writing  on  this  subject,  I  wish,"  etc.,  and  these 
words  mean  nothing  until  the  reader  has  looked  back 
to  the  title.  Two  examples  are  more  than  enough  to 
show  the  nature  of  this  error  and  the  necessity  of 
beginning  a  theme  without  reference  to  the  title. 

With  these  matters  concerning  the  subject  and  the 
title  clearly  understood,  the  student  is  in  a  position 
to  consider  the  application  of  the  three  principles  of 
Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis  to  the  whole  com- 
position. 


UNITY.  16 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE  WHOLE   COMPOSITION:   UNITY. 

THE  first  thing  which  a  student  who  starts  to  write  a 
theme  should  realize  is  that  the  theme  must  be  about 
one  thing.  Many  thoughts  will  naturally  be  included 
in  the  theme,  but  they  must  all  belong  to  a  single  sub- 
ject. That  one  subject  represents  the  reason  why  the 
theme  is  written.  The  student  may  wish,  for  example, 
to  tell  something  about  his  preparation  for  the  Institute, 
the  methods  of  discipline  in  the  school  where  he  fitted, 
the  need  of  a  better  fire  department  in  his  town,  or  any 
other  subject  of  which  he  already  has  some  knowledge. 
Since  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  write  on  this  subject,  it 
is  his  business  to  separate  it  from  everything  else  in  his 
mind,  and  to  consider  it  by  itself  as  a  unit.  When  a 
man  buys  a  piece  of  land  he  puts  a  fence  round  it  to 
mark  the  separation  of  his  own  property  from  the  world 
outside.  So,  in  preparing  to  write  a  theme,  a  man  must 
make  a  similar  separation  between  the  ideas  that  really 
belong  to  his  subject  and  those  that  do  not  belong  to  it. 
Moreover,  if  the  landowner  builds  his  fence  in  the 
wrong  place,  he  is  likely  to  enclose  land  not  his  own; 
and  if  the  writer  makes  his  separation  carelessly,  he  is 
likely  to  include  an  idea  that  has  little  or  nothing  to  do 
with  his  main  purpose.  If  an  irrelevant  idea  is  thus 
included  the  effectiveness  of  the  whole  is  weakened, 
for  the  theme  is  no  longer  a  unit.  It  is  highly  impor- 
tant, therefore,  for  the  writer  to  realize  at  the  outset  that 


16  THE   WHOLE   COMPOSITION. 

he  has  to  write  about  one  thing,  a  single  subject,  clearly 
and  unmistakably  separated  from  everything  else. 

The  principle  by  which  this  separation  of  ideas  and 
selection  of  material  are  accomplished  is  called  the  prin- 
ciple of  Unity.  By  this  principle  every  fact,  illustra- 
tion, argument,  or  anecdote  which  the  writer  thinks  of 
putting  into  the  theme  must  be  tested.  If  the  idea  in 
question  proves,  after  this  test,  to  come  within  the  terri- 
tory of  the  subject  on  which  he  is  writing,  then  it  may 
be  enclosed  within  the  limits  of  the  theme.  Many  things 
there  are  which  might  be  said  about  any  subject,  since 
they  have  with  it  some  connection  more  or  less  close. 
Nevertheless,  just  because  they  are  so  many  in  number 
and  so  diverse  in  character,  some  selection  must  be  made; 
and  the  principle  that  decides  which  of  them  shall  be 
accepted  and  which  rejected  is  the  principle  of  Unity. 

When  a  man  sits  down  to  write  a  theme  he  must  re- 
member that  the  principle  is  a  practical  one  and  needs 
to  be  constantly  applied.  His  first  impulse  is  to  wait 
for  an  idea  to  come  to  the  surface,  put  it  down  on  paper, 
wait  for  another  idea,  put  that  down,  and  so  on  until 
the  required  space  is  filled.  These  recollections  and 
impressions  and  inspirations,  however,  that  come  or 
should  come -crowding  up  are  not  all  of  equal  relevancy. 
Some,  as  it  is  plain  at  a  glance,  belong  within  the  field 
of  the  subject;  others,  it  is  equally  plain,  belong  out- 
side it.  Many  are  on  the  line.  To  these  last,  especially, 
the  writer  needs  to  apply  the  principle  of  Unity.  When 
he  does  this  he  sees  at  once  that  one  of  them  is  absurdly 
irrelevant,  that  another  is  worthless,  that  a  third  belongs 


UNITY.  17 

after  all  in  the  theme,  and  so  on.  In  this  way  every 
possible  idea  which  occurs  to  the  writer  for  the  theme 
receives  scrutiny,  and  no  idea  is  admitted  until  it  has 
successfully  passed  a  rigid  entrance  examination  for 
Unity. 

A  specific  case  l  may  serve  to  show  more  clearly  the 
practical  value  of  the  principle  of  Unity.  In  consider- 
ing what  he  shall  say  in  a  theme  entitled  "  My  Prepara- 
tion for  the  Institute,"  a  person  might  naturally  enough 
jot  down  the  following  ideas  as  possible  material :  — 

1.  Early  interest  in  mechanical  toys. 

2.  Early  ambition  to  become  a  locomotive  engineer. 

3.  Number  of  boys  in  the  High  School  who  were  pre- 
paring for  the  Institute. 

4.  Preparation  in  first  and  second  years. 

5.  Work  as  a  brakeman  during  the  summer  vacation. 

6.  Harder  work  in  the  last  years. 

7.  Course  in  mathematics. 

8.  Course  in  languages. 

9.  French  teacher. 

10.  Entrance  examinations. 

11.  Admission  to  the  Institute. 

If  by  "  Preparation  for  the  Institute  "  the  writer  means 
the  work  done  to  enable  him  to  pass  his  entrance  ex- 
aminations, he  will  see,  as  soon  as  he  applies  the  princi- 
ple of  Unity,  that  some  of  these  ideas  are  irrelevant. 
The  first  two  ideas,  of  course,  have  nothing  to  do  with 
the  subject.  Number  three  has  a  place  if  the  size  of  the 
classes  preparing  for  the  Institute  affected  in  any  way 
the  preparation  of  the  writer.  If  it  is  only  a  statement 
1  For  an  alternative  example  see  p.  48. 


18  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

of  general  interest,  it  must  be  dismissed  as  worthless. 
Number  four  belongs  in  the  theme;  number  five  does 
not  belong  in  it.  Numbers  six,  seven,  and  eight  must 
certainly  be  included.  In  the  case  of  number  nine,  the 
writer  sees  that  if  he  speaks  of  his  French  teacher,  it 
is  necessary  to  show  how  that  man  influenced  his  prepa- 
ration. The  teacher  may  have  been  a  poor  disciplina- 
rian, and  so  may  have  destroyed  all  respect  for  his  ability 
to  teach  French,  with  the  result  that  the  writer  never 
learned  his  lessons,  failed  in  the  entrance  examination, 
and  so  was  obliged  to  take  the  study  again  in  his  last 
year,  with  great  inconvenience  to  his  other  work.  By 
statement  of  these  facts  the  writer  may  show  that  his 
French  teacher  did  influence  his  preparation,  and  so 
may  justify  mention  of  him.  Numbers  ten  and  eleven 
deserve  nothing  more  than  the  barest  mention,  to  show 
the  accomplishment  of  the  preparation.  In  this  way 
the  writer  sifts  his  material ;  what  is  properly  relevant 
to  his  subject  he  saves  for  use,  the  rest  he  throws  away, 
and  the  principle  that  guides  his  choice  is  the  principle 
of  Unity. 

v'  There  are  two  ways  in  which  a  violation  of  the 
principle  of  Unity  is  likely  to  occur,  and  these  two 
ways  it  is  well  to  consider  in  detail. 

The  first  of  these  violations  of  Unity  has  to  do  with 
a  false  beginning  of  the  theme.  In  narratives,  for  ex- 
ample, there  is  a  constant  temptation  to  begin  at  a 
point  of  time  much  earlier  than  the  title  warrants. 
An  account  of  a  day's  fishing  trip  on  the  Maine  lakes 
may,  in  the  work  of  a  careless  writer,  begin  with  the 


UNITY.  19 

preparations  of  the  preceding  night,  or  with  the  arrival 
in  camp  a  week  before  the  day  of  the  trip,  or  even  with 
the  state  of  exhaustion  in  July  which  made  a  month  in 
the  woods  a  necessity.  All  of  these  statements,  how- 
ever, deal  with  time  before  the  actual  start  for  the 
lakes  on  the  morning  of  the  trip,  and  so  are  false 
beginnings.  To  take  another  case :  for  the  beginning 
of  a  theme  on  "  My  First  Business  Experience,"  many 
suggestions  offer  themselves.  The  many  ways  in  which 
a  boy  may  earn  money,  the  advisability  of  his  learning 
the  value  of  money  while  he  is  young,  the  number  of 
boys  who  begin  at  an  early  age  to  earn  money,  —  any 
one  of  these  ideas  might,  as  it  seems  at  first,  stand  in 
the  opening  sentence  of  the  theme ;  but  a  reference 
to  the  principle  of  Unity  shows  the  same  fault  in  all. 
They  are  about  "First  Business  Experiences  in  Gen- 
eral," not  about  "My  First  Business  Experience." 
Compared  with  these  false  beginnings,  it  is  easy  to 
see  the  merit  of  the  following  serious  and  simple  sen- 
tence that  begins  a  theme  on  this  subject:  — 

My  first  business  experience  was  keeping  hens. 

Examples  of  this  sort  show  that  in  theme-writing,  as 
in  every  other  undertaking  of  life,  great  advantage  is 
gained  from  a  fair  start. 

The  great  cause,  however,  of  all  this  trouble  at  the 
beginning  is  that  some  young  writers  seem  to  think 
that  any  start  which  they  may  happen  to  make  is 
necessarily  a  part  of  the  theme.  Valuable  as  such  a 
start  may  be  for  the  purpose  of  getting  under  way, 


20  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

of  setting  sluggish  thoughts  flowing,  it  is  in  all  prob- 
ability good  for  nothing  else.  What  the  school-boy 
knows  as  an  "Introduction"  is  an  example  of  this 
kind  of  false  beginning.  It  is  in  general  made  up  of 
his  first  thoughts,  the  ideas  that  come  into  his  head 
when  he  sits  down  and  asks  himself,  not  "  What  do 
I  think?"  but  "What  shall  I  say?"  To  put  these 
thoughts  on  paper  undoubtedly  warms  him  up  to  his 
work,  but  what  he  writes  thus  is  hardly  ever  likely 
really  to  belong  to  his  subject.  Its  relation  to  the 
real  theme,. and  the  right  beginning  of  the  theme,  cor- 
responds exactly  to  the  relation  between  the  ten  min- 
utes of  preliminary  practice  on  the  football  field  and 
the  opening  play  of  the  game  itself.  One  is  desultory 
and  disorganized,  the  other  is  deliberate  and  a  signifi- 
cant part  of  the  game  as  a  whole.  Nevertheless,  in 
spite  of  the  plainly  illogical  character  of  such  an  "  Intro- 
duction," as  seen  by  the  light  of  the  principle  of  Unity, 
the  inexperienced  or  careless  writer  is  always  exposed 
to  the  danger  of  this  fallacy.  A  dozen  suggestions 
may  seem  plausible  for  the  beginning;  but  only  such 
a  one  of  them  should  be  taken  for  the  opening  sentence 
as  can  stand  the  test  of  the  principle  of  Unity. 

The  second  way  in  which  a  violation  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  Unity  is  likely  to  occur  is  by  digressions.  The 
process  that  we  call  association  of  ideas  may  produce 
at  any  moment  some  fact  which,  whatever  its  apparent 
connection  with  the  subject,  will  inevitably  divert  the 
writer  from  the  proper  course  of  his  work.  When  a 
man  once  gets  switched  off  on  a  digression,  he  is  like 


UNITY.  21 

a  car  left  on  one  of  the  sidings  that  railroad  men  call 
"  spurs " ;  he  can  have  no  hope  of  further  progress 
until  he  gets  back  to  the  main  line.  When  a  man 
who  is  writing  about  one  of  the  valleys  of  western 
New  York  where  grapes  are  grown  has  described  that 
slope  of  the  hill  on  which  the  vineyards  are  situated, 
it  naturally  occurs  to  him  to  mention  the  fact  that  on 
the  other  slope  and  in  the  country  beyond  no  grapes 
grow.  Thus,  by  speaking  o'f  that  other  slope,  he  has 
"side-tracked"  himself,  so  to  say,  as  completely  as  if 
he  had  digressed  to  lament  the  absence  of  vineyards 
in  Labrador.  The  following  quotation  from  a  theme 
on  uThe  System  of  Government  in  My  Preparatory 
School "  is  extremely  faulty  in  respect  of  digressions :  - 

Over  this  principal  was  a  superintendent,  who  was  ap- 
pointed yearly  by  the  town.  The  superintendent  had 
general  supervision  of  the  school,  and  was  responsible  to 
the  town  for  the  manner  in  which  the  school  was  conducted. 
He  also  had  sole  charge  of  buying  text-books  and  of  hir- 
ing teachers.  Lastly,  there  was  a  board  of  three  commit- 
teemen,  who  were  elected  for  a  term  of  three  years  by  the 
town,  but  so  elected  that  one  went  out  of  office  every  year. 
This  left  two  members  on  the  board,  who  had  respectively 
one  and  two  years'  experience. 

The  general  duties  of  the  superintendent  and  the  way 
in  which  the  school  board  is  elected  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  system  of  government  of  the  school ;  yet  they 
are  things  that  to  the  writer's  first  thought  seem  entirely 
natural  and  proper  to  be  spoken  of.  The  moment,  how- 
ever, that  he  considers  the  principle  of  Unity  he  sees 


22  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

that  they  are  irrelevant.  A  constant  guard  against 
such  digressions  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  writer 
may  keep  to  the  main  line  of  his  thought. 

It  is  not  enough,  however,  merely  to  select  such 
things  as  are  closely  connected  with  the  subject  and  to 
reject  everything  else  ;  the  whole  composition  must  have 
not  only  Unity  of  ideas  selected  but  also  Unity  of  ex- 
pression. A  writer  should  phrase  his  thoughts  in  such 
a  way  that  the  reader  cannot  help  seeing  how  and  why 
each  idea  that  has  been  selected  has  something  to  do 
with  the  subject.  In  the  world  at  large  every  fact 
exists  in  relations  with  many  things ;  in  a  theme  every 
fact  must  appear  in  its  relation  with  only  one  thing,  — 
the  subject  which  the  writer  has  chosen.  In  the  case 
of  the  theme  cited  on  page  17,  Unity  of  expression 
is  what  is  needed  in  order  to  show  how  and  why 
numbers  three  and  nine  are  ideas  that  really  belong  to 
the  subject.  Similarly,  the  quotation  on  the  preceding 
page,  if  it  is  to  have  Unity  of  expression,  must  make 
clear  what  part  in  the  government  of  the  school  is 
taken  by  the  superintendent  and  the  school  board. 
The  fact  that  the  board  gives  the  final  decision  in 
cases  of  expulsion  (or  some  similar  fact)  is  the  thing 
which  needs  mention,  and  then  the  connection  of  the 
board  with  the  government  of  the  school  is  at  once 
evident.  A  writer's  work  does  not  have  Unity  of  ex- 
pression until,  along  with  every  fact  which  he  states, 
he  makes  clear  the  reason  why  that  fact  belongs  in  the 
theme. 

One  of  the  best  ways  of  attaining  this  Unity  of  ex- 


UNITY,  23 

pressiou  is  by  attention  to  what  is  called  the  "  point  of 
view."  This  phrase  is  employed  to  indicate  the  standing- 
ground,  literal  or  figurative,  from  which  objects  or  ideas 
are  seen  or  thought  of.  As  in  real  life  things  are  always 
seen  by  somebody  who  is  standing  somewhere,  so  in 
theme-writing  everything  must  be  stated  as  it  appears 
from  a  certain  position,  —  usually  the  position  of  the 
writer.  The  title  "  My  First  Sunday  in  Boston  "  indi- 
cates a  narration  told  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
writer.  A  theme  on  "  What  My  Fitting  School  Needs 
Most "  explains  the  need  of  the  school  that  the  writer, 
as  he  sees  it,  thinks  greatest.  In  a  theme  entitled  "  A 
Comparison  of  Lectures  and  Recitations,"  the  point  of 
view  is  that  of  a  man  who  has  knowledge  of  the  two 
subjects,  and  is  on  a  level  where  he  can  look  from  one 
to  the  other  and  compare  them.  The  point  of  view 
should  always  be  indicated  or  at  least  clearly  implied  in 
the  first  sentence  (for  example,  "  My  first  business  ex- 
perience was  keeping  hens "),  and  then  must  not  be 
changed.  Throughout  the  theme  every  detail  should  be 
presented  from  one  unalterable  point  of  view. 

When  one  point  of  view  has  been  chosen  for  a  state- 
ment, every  other  aspect  of  the  matter  is  thereby  ex- 
cluded. The  fact  that  all  other  ways  of  looking  at  it  are 
and  must  be  shut  out  when  a  subject  is  thus  treated,  gives 
that  subject  Unity.  Attention  to  the  point  of  view  is 
consequently,  one  of  the  best  ways  of  making  the  Unity 
of  a  composition  evident.  The  object  of  the  writer  is 
always  to  produce  in  the  mind  of  the  reader,  with  re- 
gard to  a  certain  subject,  a  definite  impression.  Any 


24  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

carelessness  about  defining  or  keeping  the  point  of 
view,  is  sure  to  make  work  blurred  and  confused.  It  is 
as  if,  after  making  one  photograph  of  a  house,  a  man 
should  move  his  camera  a  few  feet  to  one  side,  and  then, 
on  the  same  plate,  take  a  second  photograph  of  it.  The 
lack  of  Unity  of  expression  in  work  in  which  one  point 
of  view  is  not  adhered  to  is  well  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph:  — 

To  be  inside  an  ordinary  church  organ  while  it  is  being 
played  is  an  interesting  experience.  The  sensations  are 
hard  to  describe.  All  of  the  pipes  except  the  largest  are 
enclosed  in  a  large  room-like  box,  technically  known  as  the 
"swell."  There  are  shutters  in  the  side  of  the  swell  which 
are  opened  when  the  organist  wishes  a  loud  tone,  and  grad- 
ually closed  when  he  wishes  to  diminish  the  intensity  of 
tone.  To  one  standing  in  the  swell  of  a  large  organ,  the 
music,  soft  and  distant  to  the  listener  outside,  is  a  veritable 
whirlwind  of  sound.  The  vibrations  shake  the  air.  The 
hissing  of  escaping  wind,  the  shriek  of  the  high  notes,  and 
the  deep  reverberating  thunder  of  the  bass  form  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  same  sounds  as  heard  by  one  outside,  to 
whom  they  seem  quiet  and  peaceful. 

The  first  two  sentences  here  are  written  from  the  point  of 
view  of  one  inside  the  organ.  The  next  two  sentences 
give  that  of  a  person  who  understands  the  construction 
of  an  organ  and  is  giving  an  explanation  of  it.  The  next 
sentence  shows  that  the  man  in  the  organ  is  inside  the 
swell,  and  so  further  defines  the  first  point  of  view ; 
but  in  the  middle  of  the  sentence  is  a  phrase  which 
shifts  to  the  point  of  view  of  the  listener  outside. 
After  the  second  interruption  the  first  point  of  view  is 


UNITY.  25 

continued,  but  at  the  very  end  that  of  the  listener  out- 
side is  again  introduced.  In  this  short  paragraph  the 
subject  is  looked  at  from  thi-ee  entirely  different  stand- 
points. As  a  result  the  theme  is  confused  and  indefinite, 
and  has  no  real  Unity  of  expression.  To  secure  this 
Unity,  there  is  need  of  a  fixed  and  definite  point  of 
view. 

With  regard  to  the  point  of  view  one  caution  must  be 
given.  In  order  to  determine  the  point  of  view  for  the 
reader,  the  frequent  use  of  I,  I  think,  I  believe,  I  have 
found  out,  It  seems  to  me,  is  not  at  all  necessary.  It  is 
taken  for  granted  that  the  writer  thinks  and  believes 
and  has  found  out,  as  otherwise  he  has  no  business  to 
write  the  theme  ;  and  these  words  do  nothing  either 
for  reader  or  for  writer  to  establish  a  real  point  of 
view.  That  is  a  matter  which  lies  back  of  mere  words. 
It  is  determined  by  the  mental  attitude  of  the  writer. 

The  principle  of  Unity  as  applied  to  the  whole  com- 
position is  a  principle  of  the  first  importance.  It  pro- 
vides a  test  by  which  the  writer  may  distinguish  what 
ideas  belong  to  his  subject  and  what  do  not,  and  by 
which  he  may  avoid  false  beginnings  and  digressions. 
It  requires  that  there  shall  be  not  only  Unity  of  ideas 
selected,  but  also  that  Unity  of  expression  which  may 
best  be  attained  by  careful  attention  to  the  point  of 
view.  To  observe  this  principle  strictly  is  the  funda- 
mental condition  of  producing  a  good  theme,  since  upon 
it  depend  both  the  matter  and  the  manner  of  the  work. 


26  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

CHAPTER    IV. 

THE  WHOLE   COMPOSITION  :    COHERENCE. 

AFTER  the  selection  of  material  for  the  theme  has 
been  made,  the  next  question  is  the  matter  of  arrange- 
ment. In  other  words,  inasmuch  as  the  writer  has  a 
subject  which  represents  a  single  idea,  and  which  he 
wishes  to  make  clear  to  his  readers,  he  must  now  con- 
sider what  are  the  natural  and  logical  steps  by  which 
he  may  advance  until  he  has  presented  his  leading 
thought  in  a  clear  and  comprehensible  form.  Various 
subordinate  ideas,  or  sub-headings  of  the  main  theme, 
will  probably  already  have  occurred  to  him  as  topics  for 
treatment  in  different  paragraphs ;  and  his  present  task 
is  to  set  them  in  an  order  which  shall  bring  out  his  train 
of  thought  clearly  and  consecutively  from  beginning  to 
end.  In  some  cases,  especially  when  a  chronological 
arrangement  can  be  used,  the  question  solves  itself ; 
in  other  cases,  the  utmost  amount  of  painstaking  that 
patience  will  endure  is  not  too  much  to  expend  upon 
Coherence.  In  either  event  it  is  upon  a  clear  arrange- 
ment of  material  that  the  reader's  understanding  of  the 
subject  depends. 

Whenever  a  chronological  arrangement  is  possible,  — 
that  is,  whenever  the  subject  is  a  narrative  or  one  in 
which  the  ideas  have  some  relation  to  each  other  in 
sequence  of  time,  —  then  that  is  generally  the  coherent 
arrangement.  A  theme  which  describes  the  writer's 
first  business  experience  naturally  begins  with  the 


COHERENCE.  27 

origin  of  his  attempt,  then  narrates  the  events  in  the 
order  in  which  one  followed  another,  and  ends  with  a 
statement  of  the  results  of  the  venture.  An  account  of 
a  chemical  experiment  describes  the  steps  of  the  work 
in  the  order  in  which  they  were  taken.  It  is  a  simple 
thing  to  do,  but  for  the  sake  of  clearness  it  is  a  positive 
necessity  in  such  cases  that  the  treatment  of  events 
should  follow  without  deviation  the  order  of  time  in 
which  they  occurred. 

With  many  subjects,  however,  this  easy  chronological 
arrangement  is  out  of  the  question.  Much  shifting  about 
and  rearranging  of  ideas  is  necessary  before  the  order  is 
found  which  is  the  best,  and  the  best  because  the  clearest. 
This  matter,  therefore,  needs  to  be  discussed  in  detail. 

First  of  all  the  writer  must  consider  how  he  shall 
begin  his  theme.  In  general,  the  surest  way  for  him  to 
decide  this  is  to  look  at  the  question  from  the  reader's 
point  of  view.  What  the  reader  needs  at  the  outset  is 
some  statement  that  he  can  surely  understand  or  that 
will  interest  him.  The  writer  must  accordingly  try  to 
imagine  what  piece  of  information  about  the  subject  on 
which  he  is  writing  will  serve  this  purpose.  The  subject 
of  his  theme  is,  let  us  say,  "  The  Technique  of  Amateur 
Photography."  Following  the  principle  of  Unity,  he 
has  already  resolved  not  to  begin  with  an  introduction 
on  the  pleasures  and  profits  of  the  occupation,  or  the 
growth  of  his  own  interest  in  the  subject,  or  the  dozen 
other  things  that  he  was  at  first  tempted  to  put  into  the 
opening  paragraph ;  but  this  has  only  cleared  the  Avay 
for  the  real  question.  He  now  has  to  decide  whether 


28  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

he  shall  start  with  a  description  of  the  camera,  with  an 
account  of  how  a  photograph  is  taken,  or  with  an  expla- 
nation of  the  process  of  developing.  Any  one  of  these 
subjects  might  serve  for  the  opening  of  the  theme ;  but 
if  the  reader's  point  of  view  is  considered,  it  is  immedi- 
ately plain  that  the  person  for  whose  benefit  such  a 
theme  would  be  written  has  probably  no  knowledge  of 
photography  beyond  what  he  has  seen  of  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  camera  before  the  picture  is  taken,  and  what 
he  has  observed  at  the  time  when  the  exposure  is  made. 
The  most  easily  comprehensible  subject  for  the  first  para- 
graph, then,  is  the  explanation  of  the  actions  which  the 
reader  knows  by  sight,  but  of  which  he  has  no  further 
knowledge.  Thus  by  starting  with  the  known  he  is  pre- 
pared to  advance  to  the  unknown.  Again,  the  descrip- 
tion of  a  suburban  railroad  station  should  begin  with 
the  outside  of  the  building;  and,  moreover,  the  outside 
must  be  described  as  it  is  seen  from  some  particular 
point  of  approach,  either  as  it  looks  from  the  street  or 
as  it  appears  when  a  person  gets  out  of  the  train.  Such 
a  beginning  has  the  advantage  of  fixing  the  point  of 
view  at  once ;  the  reader  knows  where  he  is  standing, 
and  so  when,  later  in  the  theme,  he  reads  the  description 
of  the  interior  of  the  station  he  is  better  able  to  compare 
that  with  what  he  knows  already.  These  two  examples 
show  with  what  advantage  a  writer  may  plan  his  theme 
so  that  the  opening  sentence  shall  be  clear.  Everything 
depends  on  his  beginning  the  theme  at  the  starting- 
point  which  is  exactly  right  for  the  intelligence  of  the 
general  reader. 


COHERENCE.  29 

of 

The  writer  as  well  as  the  reader  is  often  benefited  by 
the  application  of  the  principle  of  Coherence  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  theme.  It  hardly  ever  fails  to  give  him  a 
hint  for  the  plan  of  the  whole.  When  he  has  once  appre- 
ciated the  fact  that,  having  gauged  the  degree  of  the 
reader's  knowledge,  he  must  start  with  the  known  and 
go  to  the  unknown,  begin  with  what  is  near  and  advance 
to  what  is  remote,  and  thus  by  easy  and  natural  stages 
take  the  reader  with  him,  then  the  matter  of  arranging 
his  ideas  in  accordance  with  this  rule  should  be  a  simple 
affair.  In  the  theme  on  amateur  photography,  for  ex- 
ample, as  soon  as  the  writer  sees  that  he  must  first  of  all 
explain  the  operations  that  the  observer  witnesses,  he 
realizes  that  the  course  of  the  reader's  interest  and  intel- 
ligence must  follow  from  the  camera  to  the  plate,  from 
the  plate  to  the  print,  and  so  on.  Adopting  this  order, 
therefore,  the  writer  is  provided  with  a  continuously 
clear  and  coherent  arrangement.  Thus  by  a  start 
which  is  on  the  reader's  level  of  comparatively  com- 
plete ignorance,  the  writer  is  able  to  discover  the  suc- 
cessive steps  by  which  he  may  lift  the  reader  to  his 
own  level  of  complete  comprehension. 

When  a  logical  arrangement  of  ideas  has  at  last  been 
effected,  the  next  thing  is  to  make  this  arrangement 
evident.  At  the  cross-roads,  or  rather  the  turning- 
points  of  the  theme,  to  press  into  service  a  new  com- 
parison, the  reader  must  be  made  to  realize  that  he  has 
finished  one  division  of  his  journey  and  is  now  to  pro- 
ceed to  the  next.  To  do  this  duty,  and  to  tell  him  how 
far  he  has  come  and  how  much  farther  he  has  to  travel, 


30  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

b 

guide-posts  must  be  set  up.  Each  guide-post,  by  mark- 
ing distance  and  direction  exactly,  prevents  the  careless 
reader  from  losing  the  road.  As  the  tendency  to  lose 
the  road  is  a  trait  of  every  careless  reader,  and  as  nine 
persons  out  of  ten  are  careless  readers,  the  matter  of  an 
appropriate  mark  to  indicate  every  considerable  advance 
is  a  thing  about  which  no  writer  can  be  too  careful.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  these  marks  do  not 
make  the  Coherence  of  the  theme,  but  merely  serve  to 
indicate  its  logical  course.  Just  as  guide-posts  play 
no  part  in  establishing  the  road,  and  are  useless  until  it 
is  built,  so  these  verbal  guide-posts  cannot  be  set  up 
until  in  the  writer's  mind  the  plan  of  the  theme  is  laid 
out  complete  from  start  to  finish.  Their  duty  is  merely 
to  mark  the  way. 

In  considering  the  means  by  which  the  writer  may 
make  the  reader  keep  in  mind  the  course  of  the  theme 
as  a  whole,  it  is  well  to  notice  "first  the  value  of  transi- 
tion paragraphs  and  summaries.  Transition  paragraphs 
serve  the  purpose  of  showing  that  one  general  division 
of  the  subject  is  finished  and  that  another  division, 
containing  perhaps  some  subdivisions,  is  to  follow. 
Paragraph  three,  for  example,  in  this  chapter,  shows 
that  the  discussion  of  one  method  of  arrangement  has 
been  finished,  and  that  an  account  in  detail  of  other 
methods  is  to  follow.  Paragraph  six  of  the  next  chap- 
ter performs  a  like  service.  Summaries  come  at  the 
conclusion  of  important  sections  of  a  work,  and  give  a 
rapid  survey  of  the  ground  covered  up  to  that  point. 
In  this  book  a  summary  is  placed  at  the  end  of  the 


COHERENCE.  31 

treatment  of  the  whole  composition,  and  in  the  same 
fashion  at  the  close  of  the  discussion  of  paragraphs,  and 
also  of  sentences.  Both  transition  paragraphs  and 
summaries,  however,  are  means  that  hardly  ever  need 
to  be  employed  in  three- page  themes,  simply  because 
the  necessities  of  the  theme  are  not  complex  enough  to 
demand  them.  They  are  there  as  much  out  of  place  as  a 
heavy  carriage-bridge  would  be  to  take  a  footpath  over 
a  brook.  In  most  longer  compositions,  however,  such  as 
a  detailed  explanation  of  some  manufacturing  process, 
or  the  technical  description  of  a  piece  of  machinery, 
these  two  ways  of  making  the  plan  clear  and  easy  to 
follow  are  indispensable. 

One  way  of  arrangement  capitally  adapted  to  themes 
of  three  or  four  hundred  words  in  length,  is  to  enumer- 
ate at  the  outset  the  points  that  are  to  be  dwelt  upon, 
and  then,  as  each  comes  up  in  turn,  to  refer  to  the 
first  enumeration.  A  good  example  l  of  this  method  is 
to  be  found  in  the  following  paragraph,  which  begins 
a  theme  entitled,  "  What  My  Fitting  School  Needs 
Most";- 

The  greatest  needs  of  my  fitting  school  are  a  larger  lec- 
ture hall,  a  new  gymnasium,  and  a  larger  athletic  field. 

The  three  succeeding  paragraphs,  accordingly,  deal 
with  these  needs  in  turn,  and  begin  as  follows :  — 

A  larger  lecture  hall  is  greatly  needed,  etc. 
A  new  gymnasium  has  long  been  desired,  etc. 

1  For  an  alternative  example  see  p.  48. 


32  THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

The  third  need  of  which  I  spoke  is  that  of   a  larger 
athletic  field. 


If  the  writer  adopts  this  method,  there  is  one  considera- 
tion which,  however  obvious  it  may  seem,  he  must  not 
be  above  regarding.  When  he  lays  down  in  his  first 
paragraph  a  definite  order  of  treatment,  that  order  he 
must  stick  to  without  variation.  It  will  not  do  for 
him  to  shift  his  plan  and  put  in  the  second  place  the 
paragraph  on  the  lapse  of  interest  in  athletics.  Since 
he  has  given  the  need  of  a  gymnasium  the  second  place 
in  the  list,  he  must  give  it  the  second  place  in  the 
theme.  When  a  writer  follows  this  method,  first  out- 
lining his  plan,  and  then  making  it  evident  that  he 
is  adhering  to  it,  the  reader  has  no  excuse  for  not 
comprehending  clearly  and  immediately  the  course  of 
the  theme. 

Connecting  sentences  between  the  main  divisions  of 
the  theme  are  important  guide-posts.  An.  examination 
of  this  chapter  on  Coherence  will  show  the  work  that 
such  sentences  do.  Pages  26  to  29  are  given  to  the 
discussion  of  (1)  what  a  clear  beginning  does  for  the 
reader,  (2)  what  it  does  for  the  writer;  and  these  two 
subjects  are  connected  by  the  sentence  on  page  29 
beginning,  The  writer  as  well  as  the  reader,  etc.  On 
page  29  the  sentence  that  begins,  When  a  logical 
arrangement  of  ideas,  etc.,  shows  a  transition  from  the 
discussion  of  arrangement  to  the  treatment  of  means 
by  which  this  arrangement  is  to  be  indicated.  In 
the  theme  referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  the 


COHERENCE.  33 

three  sentences  that  introduce  the  three  divisions  per- 
form this  same  work  of  connection.  Such  sentences, 
then,  are  useful  and  important  as  indicating  a  turn  in 
the  road,  and  if  the  reader  is  not  to  travel  undirected, 
in  danger  of  losing  his  way  at  every  cross-road,  these 
guides  must  be  carefully  set  in  position. 

The  principle  of  Coherence  thus  provides  first  for  an 
arrangement  of  the  theme  that  will  conduct  the  reader 
clearly  and  logically,  step  by  step,  from  the  beginning 
to  the  end ;  and  second  for  the  adoption  of  such  means 
as  will  enable  him  to  keep  constantly  in  mind  not  only 
the  details  of  his  progress,  but  also  his  course  as  a  whole. 
Both  of  these  requirements  are  important  and  even 
imperative.  When  they  are  once  understood,  it  is  an 
easy  and  simple  thing  to  carry  them  out,  if  only  the 
writer  remembers  to  do  it.  The  point  is  that  he  must 
remember ;  and  he  must  remember  not  because  the 
rhetorics  say  so,  but  because  the  object  of  writing  is  to 
be  understood,  and  to  be  understood  the  writer  must 
above  all  things  else  be  steadily  coherent. 


34  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  WHOLE   COMPOSITION:   EMPHASIS. 

A  SENSE  of  the  relative  values  of  things  is  necessary 
for  a  man  in  the  affairs  of  every-day  life,  and  it  is 
especially  requisite  in  English  Composition.  The  need 
of  distinguishing  the  difference  in  purchasing  power  of 
a  dime  and  of  a  dollar  is  no  greater  than  the  necessity 
in  theme-writing  that  a  man  shall  find  out  which  of  his 
ideas  are  of  small  account  and  which  are  truly  impor- 
tant. To  do  this  he  must  examine  all  the  ideas  that  he 
has  selected  for  his  theme,  and  assess  them,  so  to  say,  to 
get  the  value  of  each.  He  must  also  consider  their 
relation  to  the  theme  as  a  whole,  and  estimate  the 
fractional  part  each  is  in  the  unit  which  the  whole  com- 
position represents.  By  this  process  he  learns  to  dis- 
criminate between  the  weighty  and  the  trivial,  to  decide 
for  which  of  his  ideas  a  single  sentence  is  sufficient,  and 
which  need  the  space  of  a  full  paragraph  to  make  their 
importance  evident.  The  writer  thus  comes  to  appre- 
ciate the  relative  values  of  ideas,  and  to  see  that  there 
is  need  that  those  which  are  significant  should  be  duly 
emphasized. 

The  questions  of  the  relative  values  of  ideas,  of  pro- 
portion, and  of  the  means  by  which  the  reader  may  see 
which  ideas  are  important,  are  determined  by  the  third 
of  the  three  principles  of  composition,  the  principle  of 
Emphasis.  The  principle  of  Unity  deals  with  the 
selection  of  material,  the  principle  of  Coherence  deals 


EMPHASIS.  35 

With  the  arrangement  of  material  with  a  view  to  clear- 
ness; the  principle  of  Emphasis  has  to  do  with  the 
arrangement  of  material  with  a  view  to  indicating  its 
importance. 

In  order  to  secure  Emphasis,  a  writer  must  plan  his 
work  so  that  each  paragraph  shall  have  an  amount  of 
the  whole  space  proportionate  to  its  importance.  As 
far  as  limit  of  space  is  concerned,  a  theme  is  written 
under  the  same  conditions  that  govern  most  of  the 
newspaper  and  magazine  work  of  to-day.  A  definite 
amount  of  space  is  allotted  to  a  writer,  and  whatever 
he  writes  must  be  an  article  complete  in  itself,  con- 
taining as  nearly  as  possible  a  specified  number  of 
words.  He  must  accordingly  plan  the  length  at  which 
each  part  shall  be  treated,  so  that  it  may  not  occupy 
more  than  its  due  share  of  room.  The  writer  of  a 
three-page  theme  must  settle  the  same  problems,  and 
in  his  case,  if  the  proportions  are  bad,  the  fault  is  espe- 
cially evident.  Within  such  a  small  space  it  cannot 
escape  notice,  and  as  a  result  the  effectiveness  and 
force  of  the  theme  are  entirely  destroyed.  The  com- 
position appears  utterly  purposeless,  and  the  reader 
wonders  why  in  the  world  it  was  ever  written.  In 
any  kind  of  writing  failure  to  give  Emphasis  to  im- 
portant ideas  by  means  of  a  proportionate  length  of 
treatment  invariably  means,  loss  of  force,  and  some- 
times entirely  destroys  intelligibility  and  interest. 

An  examination  of  the  plan  of  two  themes  l  will  show 
how  Emphasis  suffers  from  poor  proportion.  In  the 
1  For  an  alternative  example  see  p.  48. 


36  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

first  theme,  entitled  "  The  Needs  of  My  Preparatory 
School,"  the  plan  and  the  proportions  of  the  paragraphs 
are  as  follows  :  — 

First  among  the  needs  of  my  preparatory  school  might 
be  mentioned  that  of  new  text-books.  Etc.  (Paragraph  of 
one  hundred  words.) 

Next  among  the  needs  is,  I  think,  that  of  regrading  the 
school.  Etc.  (Paragraph  of  one  hundred  words.) 

The  last  need,  and  also  the  least  important,  is  that  of 
having  some  system  of  marking.  Etc.  (Paragraph  of  two 
hundred  words.) 

If  the  third  need  is  the  least  important,  it  should  not 
have  one-half  the  theme  given  to  it.  Fifty  or  sixty 
words  at  most  is  all  that  it  should  receive.  As  it  is 
now,  the  reader  on  finishing  the  theme  has  his  head 
filled  with  the  writer's  ideas  as  to  changes  in  an  unim- 
portant detail  of  the  school.  In  the  second  theme, 
which  is  on  the  same  subject,  the  writer  takes  one 
hundred  and  seventy  words  for  the  need  of  larger 
quarters;  fifty  words  for  the  need  of  a  French  in- 
structor who  can  speak  French  well ;  and  eighty  words 
for  the  need  of  a  course  in  political  economy.  Then 
he  ends  the  theme  with  the  following  paragraph  :  — 

I  might  add  that  the  High  School  most  needs  a  school 
board  that  will  properly  attend  to  its  needs. 

In  this  case  it  is  plain  that  if  a  new  school  board  is  the 
most  important  need,  it  should  receive  fuller  treatment. 
In  a  revision  of  the  theme  the  other  details  should  ac- 
cordingly be  mentioned  as  briefly  as  possible  and  the 


37 

main  part  of  the  theme  should  be  devoted  to  the  pres- 
entation of  the  greatest  need  of  the  school.  In  order 
to  improve  the  Emphasis  of  these  two  themes,  the  pro- 
portions of  each  must  be  completely  altered. 

The  probable  cause  in  these  two  examples  of  poor 
proportions  is  that  the  writer,  before  beginning  his 
theme,  did  not  stop  to  consider  the  relative  impor- 
tance of  the  different  ideas  on  which  he  was  to  write. 
In  the  first  example  he  did  not  give  full  enough 
treatment  to  the  ideas  in  the  first  paragraphs  ;  and  so 
when  he  had  written  half  the  theme  he  found  that  he 
had  many  lines  to  fill  and  only  an  unimportant  idea 
with  which  to  fill  them.  In  the  second  example  the 
writer  covered  the  whole  space  with  insignificant  de- 
tails ;  and  then,  when  he  reached  his  main  subject, 
finding  that  he  had  no  more  room,  he  said,  as  if  it 
were  an  afterthought,  I  might  add  that  the  High  School 
most  needs,  etc.  The  artless  use  of  the  word  add  is 
direct  evidence  against  the  writer  that  his  plan  of 
proportions  —  if  he  ever  had  any  —  has  gone  com- 
pletely out  of  his  head.  In  each  of  these  examples 
there  are  strong  reasons  for  supposing  that  the  writer 
did  not  begin  his  work  by  making  a  careful  plan  with  a 
view  to  bringing  out  the  important  facts ;  in  each  case 
the  theme  as  a  whole  is  weak,  entirely  lacking  in  both 
purpose  and  force. 

To  give  his  theme  Emphasis,  then,  a  writer  must  first 
of  all  take  into  consideration  the  relative  values  of  his 
ideas,  and  give  them  an  amount  of  space  proportionate 
to  their  importance.  In  addition  to  this  method  it  is 


i  %/  c:  o  e 


38  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

also  possible  to  secure  Emphasis  by  arrangement  and 
position  of  ideas. 

For  the  purposes  of  Emphasis  the  important  points 
of  a  theme  are  the  beginning  and  the  end.  In  other 
words,  the  ideas  that  the  writer  wishes  to  impress  most 
strongly  on  the  reader  should  be  put  in  those  parts  of 
the  composition  where  attention  to  what  is  read  is  most 
alert;  and  general  experience  has  shown  that  those 
parts  are  the  beginning  and  the  end.  Why  they  are 
the  places  that  are  sure  to  strike  the  reader's  notice 
a  brief  explanation  will  make  clear. 

An  audience  gathered  to  hear  a  speaker  is  generally 
at  the  beginning  of  the  address  in  a  receptive  mood. 
At  the  start  the  attention  of  the  listeners  is  fresh ;  they 
do  not  mean  to  allow  themselves  to  be  distracted,  they 
are  willing  and  perhaps  eager  to  hear.  A  good  speaker, 
whom  experience  has  made  familiar  with  these  facts,  is 
therefore  likely  to  begin  with  some  striking  statement, 
or  some  anecdote  upon  which  this  interest  may  quickly 
seize.  If  he  thus  makes  use  of  the  opening  sentences 
to  indicate  his  main  subject  and  the  character  of  the 
treatment,  he  may  feel  sure  that  what  is  of  greatest 
importance  in  the  address  is,  by  reason  of  its  position 
in  the  first  sentences,  emphasized  as  fully  as  possible. 
Then,  as  he  proceeds  to  give  details  and  to  amplify  his 
thought,  the  attention  of  a  part  of  his  audience  will 
probably  fall  away,  and  this  lapse  of  interest  a  good 
speaker  takes  into  account.  He  also  has  found  out  that 
a  general  return  of  attention  always  sets  in  at  the  sign 
of  Finally  or  In  closing,  let  me  sum  up.  So,  taking 


EMPHASIS.  39 

advantage  of  this,  he  devotes  the  final  sentences  to 
the  most  forcible  statement  possible  of  the  thought 
which  he  wishes  to  emphasize  and  to  have  the  audience 
carry  away  with  them.  If  he  does  this  he  has  every 
chance  of  being  successful,  for  nothing  comes  after  to 
destroy  the  impression  created  by  his  last  words. 
Every  idea  in  the  speech  is  in  turn  covered  up,  so  to 
say,  by  the  idea  which  is  immediately  placed  upon  it. 
With  the  last  idea  this  is  of  course  not  the  case.  It 
is  on  top,  and  so  the  mind  remembers  it.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  a  good  speaker  takes  great  care  in  placing 
at  the  end,  as  well  as  the  beginning,  of  his  address, 
the  statements  to  which  he  wishes  to  give  the  most 
Emphasis. 

Again,  to  take  another  example,  any  reader's  experi- 
ence with  the  daily  paper  illustrates  the  value  of  the 
principle  of  Emphasis.  His  eye  glances  over  the  page 
for  striking  headlines,  he  begins  to  read,  and  continues 
or  not  according  to  the  interest  'for  him  of  the  first  five 
or  six  lines.  When  he  reaches  the  editorial  page  he 
begins  an  article  which  promises  well,  in  all  probability 
skims  over  the  middle  of  it,  and  really  reads  the  closing 
sentences,  trusting  to  find  in  them  the  gist  of  the  sub- 
ject. On  still  another  page  he  may  find  a  column  which 
starts  out  as  news ;  but  a  quick  glance  at  the  last  lines 
shows  him  that  he  has  escaped  reading  a  thinly  dis- 
guised advertisement  of  X 's  Magic  Hair  Restorer, 

or  some  other  quack  nostrum.  In  each  of  these  in- 
stances the  first  and  the  last  lines  have  been  the  two 
places  to  which  the  reader  naturally  turned  first ;  and  in 


40  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

each  instance  he  found  there  the  statements  that  the 
several  writers  had  been  most  desirous  of  making 
emphatic. 

After  these  two  illustrations,  it  should  be  clear  in 
what  ways  the  principle  of  Emphasis  may  be  applied  to 
the  writing  of  themes.  Careful  attention  to  the  begin- 
ning and  the  end  of  the  composition,  with  a  view  of 
putting  in  each  place  the  statements  that  are  most 
important,  will  go  a  great  way  toward  making  that 
importance  evident  to  the  reader.  An  examination  in 
detail  will  show  the  means  by  which  this  is  accom- 
plished. 

According  to  the  principle  of  Emphasis,  the  theme 
should  begin  with  a  statement  of  some  fact  which  is  im- 
portant. In  the  first  sentence  the  reader  gets  his  start, 
and  for  this  start  he  should  be  given  a  statement  which 
in  its  bearing  on  the  rest  of  the  theme  is  significant, 
Too  often  the  writer  begins  by  calling  attention  to  some 
detail  which  is  trivial  and  therefore  in  the  opening 
sentence  out  of  place.  As  examples  of  such  unemphatic 
beginnings  the  following,  each  the  first  sentence  of  a 
theme,  are  instructive  :  — • 

1.  To  be  inside  a  church  organ  while  it  is  being  played  is 
an  experience  that  happens  to  few  people. 

2.  Probably  not  one  person   in  ten  who   uses   a   monkey- 
wrench  ever  stops  to  think  that  in  it  are  employed  two  of  the 
mechanical  powers  which  have  been  so  useful  to  man,  namely, 
the  screw  and  the  lever. 

3.  You  will  doubtless  be  surprised  when  I  say  that  my 
preparation  for  the  Institute  covered  five  years, 


EMPHASIS.  41 

In  these  examples  the  italicized  words  contain  details 
that  are  of  no  importance  whatever,  and  that  consider- 
ably weaken  the  force  of  the  statements  with  which 
they  are  connected.  In  each  case  the  words  not  itali- 
cized give  the  important  idea,  and  that  should  stand 
alone  in  the  first  sentence.  In  contrast  with  these 
weak  and  unemphatic  beginnings  is  the  opening  sen- 
tence already  quoted  in  the  chapter  on  Unity, — My 
first  business  experience  was  keeping  hens.  Here  in  the 
very  first  line,  a  line  which  the  reader  cannot  possibly 
overlook,  is  a  plain  statement  of  the  main  subject,  in- 
forming him  at  once  what  the  theme  is  about.  A  start 
of  this  sort  catches  the  reader's  attention  immediately ; 
and  in  the  same  fashion  the  opening  of  every  theme 
should  have  Emphasis,  for  upon  the  character  of  the 
first  sentences  depends  the  reader's  interest. 

To  begin  a  theme  properly  is  a  difficult  matter,  and 
the  writer  is  in  danger  of  violating  any  or  all  of  the 
principles  of  composition.  Each  of  the  principles  needs 
his  consideration  when  he  is  deciding  how  he  shall  start 
his  composition ;  but  in  the  different  requirements  there 
is  not  necessarily  any  conflict.  The  first  sentence  of  the 
theme  on  "My  First  Business  Experience,"  which  is 
good  from  the  point  of  view  of  Emphasis,  is  also  good 
from  the  point  of  view  of  Unity.  In  general,  in  the 
threefold  examination  which  the  beginning  needs,  a 
sentence  which  stands  the  tests  of  Unity  and  Coherence 
is  likely  to  be  acceptable  on  the  score  of  Emphasis. 

After  the  statement  of  the  subject  in  the  first  line, 
the  body  of 'the  theme  should  be  devoted  to  the  develop- 


42  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

ment  of  it.  This  may  be  done  by  a  presentation  of  the 
ideas  connected  with  the  subject,  by  statement  of  de- 
tails, by  examples,  and  in  general  by  any  means  that 
will  help  to  show  in  full  what  are  the  writer's  thoughts 
on  the  subject.  An  account  of  the  means  to  secure  this 
result  cannot  be  given  here,  because  they  vary  greatly 
with  the  subject  and  the  kind  of  treatment.  It  is  enough 
for  the  writer  to  remember  that  the  proper  place  for 
the  development  of  his  subject  is  the  main  body  of  the 
theme. 

The  end  of  the  theme  is  a  part  which,  according  to 
Emphasis,  requires  especial  care.  It  is  a  particularly 
important  matter,  for  whatever  is  contained  in  the  final 
sentences  has  the  best  chance  of  remaining  in  the 
reader's  mind.  The  work  of  inexperienced  and  careless 
writers,  however,  shows  in  this  respect  many  faults  of 
Emphasis.  Some  lazy  writers  make  a  habit  of  stopping 
short  at  the  first  period  beyond  the  page  limit,  as  if 
they  were  sawing  off  a  board  at  a  specified  length. 
Some  serve  a  sort  of  "  notice  to  quit "  on  the  reader,  — 
"  Such  were  the  reasons  that  induced  me  to  enter  the 
Institute"  or  "Such  is  the  appearance  of  the  railroad 
station  at  Maiden."  Sometimes  the  theme  ends  much 
in  the  manner  of  the  following  examples  :  — 

1.  I  might  add  that  the  High  School  most  needs  a  school 
board   which   will   properly   attend   to   its  needs.      (Final 
sentence  of  a  theme  on  "  What  My  Fitting  School  Needs 
Most") 

2.  On  the  whole,  however,  I  prefer  a  public  school  to  a 
private  school,  since  it  is  likely  to  have  better  teachers  and 


EMPHASIS.  43 

better  equipments,  and  because  it  does  not  cost  so  much. 
(Final  sentence  of  a  theme  comparing  public  and  private 
schools,  and  basing  the  comparison  chiefly  on  the  athletic 
advantages  of  each.) 

Each  of  these  sentences  illustrates  bad  Emphasis  at  the 
end  of  a  composition  because  it  presents  in  the  very 
closing  words  an  entirely  new  idea.  That  the  idea  has 
received  no  mention  before  is  made  evident  in  the  first 
case  by  the  use  of  the  word  add,  and  in  the  second 
case  by  the  word  however,  a  connective  which  de- 
notes opposition  rather  than  summing  up  of  ideas.  In 
reality  the  closing  sentence  should  give  the  reader  a 
notion  of  what  is  the  writer's  final  judgment  on  the 
matter.  In  the  above  examples  of  bad  endings  the 
trouble  is  that  a  definite  purpose  to  end  the  theme  in 
a  forcible  and  effective  fashion  never  once  entered  the 
writer's  head.  To  guard  against  this  careless  habit  of 
leaving  the  theme  at  loose  ends,  the  principle  of  Em- 
phasis intervenes,  and  requires  that  the  last  paragraph 
shall  in  some  way  or  other  give  the  reader  the  complete 
results  of  the  writer's  thought  about  the  subject  of 
the  theme. 

Of  the  different  ways  of  making  the  end  of  a  theme 
emphatic,  a  summary  is  often  serviceable.  Sometimes 
the  summary  is  merely  a  list  of  the  subjects  of  the  para- 
graphs; sometimes  it  is  a  general  statement  for  which 
the  specific  details  of  the  preceding  paragraphs  have 
been  preparing  the  way.  In  any  case  a  summary  should 
leave  in  the  mind  of  the  reader  a  sense  of  one  thing  of 
which  the  writer  has  felt  the  importance,  and  the  set- 


44  THE   WHOLE   COMPOSITION. 

ting  forth  of  which  has  been  his  primary  object.  A  few 
examples  will  show  how  the  Emphasis  at  the  end  of 
the  theme  may  be  well  managed :  — 

1.  To  sum  up   these   statements :    we  find   the   private 
school  more  poorly  supported,  the  public  school  with  more 
competent  teachers ;  the  private  school  exclusive,  the  public 
school  free.     (End  of  a  theme  comparing  public  and  private 
schools.) 

2.  These  suggestions  seem  to  point  to  rather  an  ideal 
state  of  affairs  in  a  school,  but  it  is  well  to  make  an  effort 
in  this  direction,  even  if  these  plans  which  I  have  discussed 
cannot  be  fully  carried  out  for  some  time  to  come.     (End  of 
a  theme  entitled  "The  School  of  To-day.7') 

3.  Comparing  lectures  and  recitations  as  a  means  of  teach- 
ing, we  see  that  what  one  lacks  the  other  has.     Therefore 
the  best  system  is  to  have  a  combination  of  the  two,  and 
this  is  what  is  done  in  most  colleges.     (End  of  a  theme 
comparing  lectures  and  recitations.) 

4.  As  I  look  back  upon  that  experience,  I  cannot  see 
that  it  gave  me  much  wisdom  in  earning  or  in  spending 
money,  nor  do  I  regret  this  fact.     I  invested  in  pleasure, 
and,  in  both  the  character  and  the  amount  of  the  article 
received,  I  think  that  my  venture  was  a  success.     (End  of 
a  theme  on  "  My  First  Business  Experience.") 

These  examples  are  enough  to  illustrate  the  advantages 
of  a  proper  ending,  and  to  indicate  some  of  the  ways  in 
which  it  may  be  secured.  There  is  no  cast-iron  frame 
to  fit  which  the  closing  paragraph  must  be  forced  into  a 
uniform  rigid  shape ;  there  is  only  the  general  principle 
of  Emphasis,  —  the  principle  that  the  last  lines  of  the 
theme  should  give  the  reader  the  point  most  important 
of  all. 


EMPHASIS.  45 

The  principle  of  Emphasis  requires  that  a  writer  shall 
determine  the  relative  values  of  his  ideas,  and  that  to 
those  which  are  most  important  he  shall  give  an  amount 
of  space  in  his  treatment  proportionate  to  their  impor- 
tance. As  a  further  means  for  securing  Emphasis,  the 
ideas  of  greatest  significance  should  be  placed  in  parts  of 
the  theme  where  they  will  most  surely  attract  the  reader's 
attention;  and  these  parts  are  the  beginning  and  the 
end.  The  main  body  of  the  theme  should  contain  the 
development  of  the  subject.-  The  Emphasis  of  the  first 
lines  of  the  theme  is  usually  good  when  they  can  stand 
the  test  of  Unity  and  Coherence.  Bad  Emphasis  at  the 
end  of  the  composition  should  be  guarded  against ;  and 
the  writer  should  take  especial  care  to  make  his  final 
paragraph  sum  up  the  results  of  his  thought  about  the 
subject  of  the  theme,  and  leave  in  the  mind  of  the 
reader  as  a  conclusion  the  idea  which  the  writer  con- 
siders most  important. 


46  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

Summary  of  the  Chapters  on  the  Whole  Composition. 

The  subject  which  is  assigned  to  a  student  for  his 
theme  is  one  of  which  he  already  has  some  knowledge, 
and  it  is  restricted  in  scope  so  that  he  may  treat  it  ad- 
equately within  the  limits  of  three  pages  of  theme- 
paper,  an  amount  of  space  that  may  contain  from 
three  to  four  hundred  words.  The  theme  must  have 
a  title  which  shall  designate  it  briefly  and  exactly. 
In  the  writing  of  the  whole  composition,  selection, 
arrangement,  and  proportions  of  material  are  the  chief 
things  to  be  considered.  The  selection  of  material  is 
governed  by  the  principle  of  Unity;  nothing  should 
be  admitted  to  the  theme  which  is  not  immediately 
connected  with  the  main  subject.  Violations  of  Unity, 
such  as  false  beginnings  and  digressions,  the  writer 
should  carefully  avoid.  He  must  give  his  work  Unity 
of  expression  as  well  as  Unity  of  ideas  selected ;  that  is, 
he  must  show  details  not  in  their  relations  to  things  in 
general,  but  solely  in  their  relations  to  the  subject  in 
hand.  Finally,  he  must  carefully  observe  the  point 
of  view.  After  the  selection  of  material,  questions  of 
arrangement  and  proportion  must  be  considered,  and 
here  the  principles  of  Coherence  and  Emphasis  apply. 
The  principle  of  Coherence  requires  a  logical  presenta- 
tion of  ideas.  The  writer  should  begin  with  facts  that 
are  known  to  the  reader,  and  should  advance  step  by 
step  to  facts  that  are  unknown.  The  means  that  the 
writer  may  use  to  show  the  logical  connection  of  his 
thoughts  are  transition  paragraphs,  connecting  sentences 


SUMMARY.  47 

between  paragraphs,  and  a  statement  at  the  beginning 
of  the  plan  which  the  theme  is  to  follow.  The  principle 
of  Emphasis  demands  that  the  writer  shall  estimate  the 
relative  values  of  the  different  ideas  that  are  connected 
with  his  main  subject,  and  shall  give  each  of  these 
an  amount  of  space  proportionate  to  its  importance. 
Emphasis  is  also  secured  if  the  writer  takes  care  to 
give  the  ideas  that  he  wishes  to  impress  upon  the  reader 
such  prominent  positions  as  the  beginning  and  the  end 
of  the  theme.  The  opening  sentences  should  present 
the  subject  in  such  a  way  as  to  arouse  the  interest  of 
the  reader ;  in  the  body  of  the  theme  should  be  given 
details,  and  the  development  of  the  subject;  the  final 
sentences  should  be  a  summary,  or  some  statement  that 
will  give  the  reader  the  results  of  the  theme.  By  means 
of  the  three  principles  of  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Em- 
phasis, then,  the  writer  is  able  to  govern  carefully  the 
selection,  the  arrangement,  and  the  proportions  of  the 
substance  of  the  whole  composition. 

Alternative  Examples  and  Exercises  in  Connection  with  the 
Chapters  on  the  Whole  Composition. 

1.  Titles,  p.  13.  "Talk"  and  "Newspapers"  are  titles  too  large 
for  adequate  treatment  in  a  three-page  theme.  When  altered  to 
"What  My  Schoolmates  Talk  About"  and  "How  I  Read  a  News- 
paper," they  are  suitably  restricted.  The  following  are  titles  of  vari- 
ous merit  that  suggest  themselves  for  use  in  connection  with  a  theme 
on  the  advantages  of  athletic  contests  between  schools :  — 

Athletics.  Should  There  Be  Contests  be- 

Athletics  in  Schools.  tween  Preparatory  Schools  ? 

Interscholastic  Games.  The  Advantages  of  Interscholas- 

tic  Athletics. 


48  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

2.  Selection  of  Material,    p.  17.     The  following  ideas  may  sug- 
gest themselves  as  material  for  a -theme  entitled  "How  I  Read  a 
Newspaper  "  :  — 

1 .  Number  of  people  who  read  newspapers. 

2.  Extent  to  which  I  read  newspapers. 

3.  Papers  which  I  prefer. 

4.  Hour  for  reading  the  paper. 

5.  Amount  of  news  which  I  read. 

6.  What  I  read  first. 

7.  How  I  read  the  Sunday  paper. 

8.  What  I  always  read  in  a  paper. 

9.  What  I  never  read. 
10.  Is  my  time  wasted  ? 

Of  the  above  topics,  which  clearly  belong  in  the  theme  ?  Which  do 
not  ?  Which  are  on  the  line  ?  Of  these  last  which  may  be  included 
if  proper  attention  is  given  to  Unity  of  Expression  ? 

3.  Ways  of  Indicating  Coherence,     p.  31.     A  theme  on  "  What  I 
Read  in  the  Boston  Herald  "  begins  as  follows :  — 

The  things  which  I  read  in  the  Boston  Herald  are  the  most 
important  articles  of  news  on  the  first  page,  the  athletic  and 
sporting  news,  and  the  short  paragraphs  on  the  editorial  page. 

The  next  three  paragraphs  begin  as  follows :  — 

First  of  all  I  read  the  important  news  on  the  first  page. 
Next  I  turn  to  the  athletic  and  sporting  columns. 
Last  I  generally  read  some  of  the  brightest  paragraphs  on  the 
editorial  page. 

4.  Poor  Proportion,     p.  35.     The  following  indicates  the  propor- 
tion of  a  theme  entitled  "Why  A Academy  Has  No  Baseball 

Team"  :  — 

A  year  ago  last  spring  our  baseball  team  had  a  hard  time, 
and  before  the  end  of  the  term  it  went  to  pieces,  etc.  (Para- 
graph of  two  hundred  and  fifty  words.) 

Then  there  was  no  enthusiasm  among  the  students  and  it  was 
hard  to  collect  subscriptions,  etc.  (Paragraph  of  fifty  words.) 

Finally  we  lost  three  games  in  succession,  and  every  one  got 
discouraged,  etc.  (Paragraph  of  fifty  words.) 

Which  of  these  ideas  is  most  important?     What  is  the  proper 
amount  of  space  for  the  first  paragraph  ? 


EXERCISES.  49 

5.  A  study  of  the  theme  printed  on  p.  109,  and  entitled  "A  Char- 
acter Worth  Having,"  is  valuable  in  illustrating  the  practical  applica- 
tion of  the  three  principles  of  composition.  The  following  questions 
give  hints  for  examination  of  the  theme  in  detail :  — 

Unity.  Are  there  any  violations  of  Unity  ?  Do  the  first  two  sen- 
tences belong  to  the  theme  ?  Is  their  connection  with  it  close  enough 
so  that  by  a  more  careful  attention  to  Unity  of  expression  they  may 
stand  ?  What  is  the  point  of  view  of  the  theme  ?  Is  it  consistently 
maintained  ? 

Coherence.  What  is  the  sequence  of  ideas  in  the  theme  ?  Why  is 
paragraph  1  at  the  beginning  of  the  theme  ?  Should  paragraph  2 
come  first  ?  Is  the  connection  between  paragraphs  good  ? 

Emphasis.  Why  are  the  first  two  paragraphs  longer  than  the  last 
two  ?  Why  is  not  the  second  paragraph  placed  last  ?  Is  the  opening 
sentence  good  ?  Does  the  last  sentence  make  a  good  ending  to  the 
theme  ?  Is  a  concluding  paragraph  needed  ? 


THE   PARAGRAPH. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  PARAGRAPH:   UNITY. 

A  PARAGRAPH  is  a  whole  composition  on  a  small  scale.  \ 
A  theme  is  made  up  of  paragraphs,  but  these  are  not 
merely  divisions  or  fractional  parts  of  the  whole.  Each 
paragraph  is  a  unit  by  itself,  although  of  a  lower 
denomination,  as  the  measure  which  is  one-twelfth  of 
a  foot  is  also,  considered  as  an  inch,  a  unit.  The  rela- 
tion between  a  paragraph  and  the  whole  composition 
consists  in  the  fact  that  the  paragraph  presents  the 
development  of  one  of  the  ideas  which  go  to  make  up 
the  whole  theme.  What  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
whole  composition  is  a  subordinate  idea,  is  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  paragraph  an  idea  to  be  amplified 
and  expanded  to  as  great  an  extent  as  the  limits  of  one 
paragraph  will  allow.  A  paragraph,  being  thus  com- 
plete in  itself,  needs  to  have  the  three  principles  of 
composition  applied  to  it,  in  order  that  in  structure  and 
in  treatment  it  may  conform  to  the  laws  which  govern 
the  expression  of  all  thought. 

The  principle  of  Unity  as  applied  here  requires  that 
each  paragraph  in  a  theme  should  be  devoted  to  the 
statement  and  the  explanation  of  a  single  idea.     About' 
this  idea  should  be  grouped  the  thoughts  that  are  neces- 1 
sary  to  explain  it ;  and  no  thought  that  does  not  plainly  ' 

63 


54  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

contribute  to  the  explanation  should  be  admitted  to 
the  paragraph.  Every  paragraph  thus  represents  the 
way  in  which  a  single  idea  has  grown  up  in  the  mind 
of  the  writer.  An  illustration  may  help  to  make  this 
clear.  In  a  theme  on  "  The  Needs  of  My  Fitting 
School,"  the  writer  intends  in  one  paragraph  to  speak 
of  the  need  of  a  new  gymnasium.  Certain  facts  im- 
mediately group  themselves  about  this  idea, — the  reason 
why  there  is  no  gymnasium,  the  low  condition  of  ath- 
letics in  consequence  of  the  lack,  the  general  toning  up 
of  the  school  which  a  new  gymnasium  would  give. 
All  these  thoughts  bear  on  the  subject,  and  all  are 
needed  to  present  it  in  its  completeness.  When,  accord- 
ingly, they  are  all  grouped  together  in  one  paragraph, 
they  represent  the  sum  and  substance  of  the  writer's 
opinions  on  that  especial  matter,  namely,  the  need  of 
a  new  gymnasium.  The  reader  thus  gets  within  the 
limits  of  one  paragraph  one  idea  fully  developed.  In 
much  this  same  fashion  every  paragraph  should,  so 
to  say,  grow  together,  each  representing  a  group  of 
thoughts  expressing  one  idea. 

It  is  unfortunately  true,  however,  that  this  notion 
of  a  paragraph  as  a  unit  is  one  which  inexperienced 
writers  are  slow  to  appreciate,  and  still  slower  to  put 
into  practice.  With  them  paragraphing  is  a  matter  of 
accident  or  caprice ;  one  paragraph  may  contain  ten 
words,  and  the  next  two  hundred.  In  view  of  the  bad 
paragraphing  which  a  large  proportion  of  themes  ex- 
hibit, it  is  well  to  examine  in  detail  some  of  the  com- 
monest faults. 


UNITY.  55 

Some  writers  seem  to  think  that  a  single  sentence, 
inasmuch  as  it  represents  but  one  idea,  is  all  that  is 
needed  to  make  up  a  paragraph.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
this  is  hardly  ever  the  case.  Such  a  lazy  supposition 
produces  a  theme  every  page  of  which  contains  four  or 
five  paragraphs,  each  paragraph  consisting  of  a  single 
sentence.  In  the  following  example  the  writer  has 
gone  even  further,  for  in  one  paragraph  he  has  put  only 
a  part  of  a  sentence :  — 

It  is  claimed  by  a  great  number  of  people  that  the  lecture 
system  does  not  produce  so  good  results  as  that  of  recitations. 

That  the  student  fails  to  prepare  himself  upon  the  subject 
as  well  as  he  would  if  he  knew  that  he  would  be  marked 
according  to  the  recitation  he  made. 

Again,  at  a  lecture  the  student  may  if  so  disposed  spend 
his  time  in  preparing  his  lesson  for  his  next  recitation 
instead  of  paying  proper  attention  and  taking  notes. 

As  an  actual  fact  the  majority  of  students  fear  the  recita- 
tion more  than  the  lecture,  and  therefore  pay  more  attention 
to  it. 

An  examination  of  the  substance  of  these  so-called  para- 
graphs shows  that  what  the  writer  has  said  in  them  is 
in  fact  all  about  one  subject,  —  the  objections  that  are 
made  to  the  lecture  system.  These  objections,  accord- 
ingly, instead  of  being  separated  into  four  apparent 
paragraphs,  should  all  go  together  to  make  up  one  real 
paragraph.  A  paragraph  is  not  a  unit  if  it  contains 
a  fraction  of  a  complete  idea. 

A  paragraph  is  not  a  unit  when  it  contains  more  than 
one  complete  idea.  The  indolence  of  mindl  in  a  writer 


56  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

which  allows  him  to  pass  from  one  part  of  his  subject  to 
the  next  without  taking  trouble  to  mark  the  transition 
by  beginning  a  new  paragraph,  produces  in  the  reader 
first  mental  confusion  and  then  disgust.  Such  a  theme 
offers  a  compact  mass  to  break  up  which  into  its  proper 
divisions  will  defy  the  brains  and  the  patience  of  any- 
body. As  for  being  intelligible,  it  might  just  as 
well  have  been  written  with  all  its  sentences  run  into 
one  sentence,  or  with  all  its  words  joined  into  one 
word.  Imagine  the  lucidity  of  the  present  chapter 
if  it  were  printed  as  one  word  eight  pages  long.  The 
reasons  that  forbid  such  a  proceeding  are  exactly  the 
reasons  that  prevent  a  writer  from  combining  two  or 
more  complete  and  separate  ideas  into  one  paragraph. 

In  paragraphs,  as  in  whole  compositions,  there  is  con- 
stant danger  of  digressions.  If  the  writer  does  not  have 
a  clear  idea  of  the  Unity  of  his  paragraph  he  is  likely  to 
admit  into  it  some  fact  which  is  out  of  place  there.  It  may 
properly  enough  belong  to  some  other  paragraph  of  the 
theme,  or  it  may  have  no  logical  connection  with  any 
part  of  the  work ;  but  in  either  case  for  the  paragraph 
in  question  it  is  a  violation  of  Unity.  Such  digressions 
may  consist  of  a  sentence  or  more,  or  a  clause  in  a  sen- 
tence, or  even  only  a  phrase.  Some  point  of  explana- 
tion or  interest  suggests  itself  without  at  the  moment 
seeming  irrelevant;  yet  when  it  is  referred  to  the  main 
idea  of  the  paragraph,  it  is  plain  at  once  that  it  is  a 
digression.  In  writing  the  paragraph  on  the  need  of  a 
new  gymnasium,  for  example,  a  student  might  naturally 
on  first  thought  set  down  a  sentence  like  the  following : 


UNITY.  57 

Besides,  a  new  gymnasium  would  do  a  great  deal  to  re- 
vive interest  in  baseball,  which  is  justly  called  the  national 
game,  and  also  in  football,  which  I  for  one  think  is  the 
finest  game  that  there  is. 

Here  the  two  relative  clauses  that  modify  baseball 
and  football  respectively  have  nothing  whatever  to  do 
with  the  particular  subject  of  the  paragraph  in  question. 
They  add  ideas  that  come  outside  the  limits  of  the  para- 
graph, and  unless  they  are  struck  off  the  sentence  will 
destroy  the  Unity  of  the  paragraph.  Every  digression 
of  this  sort  should  be  avoided,  as  otherwise  a  paragraph 
becomes  an  improper  fraction  when  it  should  be  a  unit. 
The  test  for  Unity  is  whether  the  gist  of  a  paragraph^ 
can  be  condensed  into  a  single  sentence.  If  a  paragraph 
is  the  development  of  one  idea,  that  idea  in  its  simplest 
form  should  be  capable  of  brief  and  compact  statement. 
The  act  of  framing  such  a  sentence  as  may  summarize 
the  paragraph  brings  quickly  to  light  any  digression. 
The  two  relative  clauses  in  the  sentence  quoted  at 
the  top  of  the  page,  when  they  are  once  referred  to  the 
main  idea  of  the  paragraph,  phrased  in  the  sentence, 
A  new  gymnasium  is  needed,  cannot  for  an  instant 
stand  the  test.  An  attempt  to  state  briefly  the  subject 
of  the  following  paragraph  shows  that  the  writer  is 
really  discussing  two  subjects  together :  — 

Although  the  guitar  is  capable  of  solo  work  it  is  essen- 
tially an  accompanying  instrument  The  body  is  shaped 
roughly  like  that  of  a  violin,  but  it  is  several  times  as  large. 
The  neck  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  body,  and  is  broad  and 
flat.  There  are  six  strings,  three  of  gut  and  three  of  silk 


58  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

wrapped  with  wire.  The  register  of  the  guitar  is  low,  the 
highest  note  being  a  full  octave  lower  than  that  of  the 
mandolin.  It  is  often  employed  as  an  accompaniment  to 
the  banjo  or  the  mandolin,  and  it  is  also  much  used  as  an 
accompaniment  to  the  voice.  As  a  solo  instrument  the 
guitar  is  considered  without  exception  the  most  difficult  of 
all  instruments  to  master,  but  a  good  degree  of  proficiency 
in  accompaniment  is  easily  acquired. 

Here  the  first  sentence  implies  that  the  paragraph  is 
about  the  guitar  as  an  accompanying  instrument.  The 
next  three  sentences,  however,  are  evidently  a  descrip- 
tion of  its  appearance.  The  rest  belongs  to  the  first 
subject.  To  state  briefly  the  substance  of  this  para- 
graph, then,  it  is  necessary  to  say  that  it  describes  (1) 
the  guitar  as  an  accompanying  instrument  and  (2)  the 
appearance  of  the  guitar.  The  lack  of  Unity  is  evident. 
When  the  three  sentences  on  the  appearance  of  the 
guitar  are  cut  out,  the  difficulty  is  removed.  The  pos- 
sibility of  condensed  statement  in  a  compact  sentence 
or  phrase  is  thus  a  sure  test  of  the  Unity  of  a  paragraph. 
Up  to  this  point  all  that  has  been  said  about  the 
paragraph  has  applied  to  it  as  being  a  group  of  ideas 
that  not  only  exists  as  a  unit  in  itself,  but  also  forms  a 
part  of  a  theme.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  paragraph 
exists  as  a  unit  not  related  to  a  whole  of  larger  dimen- 
sions. Brief  descriptions  and  explanations,  anecdotes, 
and  comments  on  matters  of  passing  interest  are  sub- 
jects to  which  the  writer  can  generally  give  adequate 
treatment  in  a  paragraph  of  from  one  hundred  arid  fifty 
to  two  hundred  words  in  length.  Such  paragraphs  are 


UNITY.  59 

in  'every  respect  whole  compositions.  As  such  they 
offer  an  admirable  opportunity  for  the  inexperienced 
writer  to  give  himself  practice  in  the  exercise  of  the 
principles  of  composition.  If  he  writes  a  daily  theme 
consisting  of  a  single  paragraph,  he  is  obliged  to  con- 
sider in  this  miniature  whole  composition  questions  of 
choice  arid  restriction  of  subject,  of  selection,  arrange- 
ment, and  proportion  of  material ;  and  all  this  with  the 
greatest  regard  to  economy  of  space.  The  constant 
exercise  of  his  mind  on  these  important  details  of  com- 
position is  the  best  practice  that  he  could  possibly 
have ;  and  the  writing  of  daily  themes,  each  a  complete 
paragraph,  will  give  the  student  a  realization  of  the 
practical  value  of  the  principles  of  composition  and  a  fa- 
cility in  expression  which  he  can  obtain  in  no  other  way. 
The  writing  of  single  paragraphs  is  especially  valu- 
able for  practice  in  Unity.  The  writer  is  obliged  to  se- 
lect those  details  only  which  are  absolutely  necessary  to 
his  subject,  for  the  space  is  small  and  every  word  counts. 
The  slightest  digression  is  glaringly  apparent.  A  viola- 
tion of  the  point  of  view  is  likely  to  ruin  the  Unity 
of  the  paragraph  (compare  the  example  on  page  24). 
The  writer  must  for  the  time  being  concentrate  his 
attention  on  his  subject,  and,  excluding  everything  else, 
first  realize  for  himself  and  then  express  so  that  others 
shall  realize  it,  that  subject  as  a  unit,  separate  and  com- 
plete. By  the  drill  in  the  writing  of  single  paragraphs 
he  is  more  and  more  able  to  give  all  his  written  work 
that  Unity  which  is  the  first  requisite  of  all  good 
writing. 


60  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

A  paragraph,  to  sum  up,  is  a  whole  composition 
on  a  small  scale.  The  principle  of  Unity  as  applied  to  it 
requires  that  every  paragraph  shall  be  a  unit,  represent- 
ing a  group  of  thoughts  about  a  single  idea.  Common 
violations  of  Unity  are  (1)  the  beginning  of  a  new 
paragraph  with  every  sentence,  (2)  the  failure  to  begin 
a  new  paragraph  with  a  new  division  of  the  thought, 
the  result  being  that  one  paragraph  includes  more  than 
one  complete  idea,  and  (3)  digressions.  The  division 
of  the  theme  into  paragraphs  is  the  means  of  indicating 
the  different  subdivisions  of  the  main  subject;  but  a 
paragraph  may  also  exist  independently  of  a  theme,  as 
a  whole  composition  in  miniature.  The  writing  of  such 
single  paragraphs  offers  a  good  opportunity  to  the 
writer  for  practice  in  applying  the  principle  of  Unity. 
This  principle  in  paragraph-writing  is  of  the  highest 
importance,  for  it  is  the  principle  to  which  the  para- 
graph really  owes  its  existence  and  its  identity. 


COHERENCE.  61 

CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  PARAGRAPH  :  COHERENCE. 

THE  principle  of  Coherence,  which  governs  the  whole 
composition,  governs  no  less  the  paragraph.  In  each 
group  of  sentences  it  determines  •  the  order  and  the 
arrangement  of  ideas.  The  end  sought  is  to  secure 
a  sequence  of  ideas  natural  and  clear,  such  as  there 
must  be  if  the  successive  steps  of  the  writer's  thoughts 
are  to  be  evident.  By  the  aid  of  Coherence  the  writer 
aims  to  make  the  way  plain  and  straight,  so  that  the 
most  careless  and  erratic  reader  cannot  help  walking  in 
in  it ;  and  Coherence  means  chiefly  a  proper  sequence 
of  ideas. 

The  especial  force  of  the  phrase  "  sequence  of  ideas  " 
may  perhaps  best  be  brought  out  by  a  comparison  with 
the  sequence  of  operations  in  a  chemical  experiment. 
The  student  first  collects  his  apparatus  and  material. 
He  then  starts  the  experiment  and  performs  in  order 
the  operations  indicated.  The  fact  that  he  has  begun 
with  operation  A  makes  it  necessary  that  he  should 
next  perform  B ;  that  involves  his  doing  C  at  once,  and 
so  on.  These  several  operations  connect  themselves  in 
a  natural  and  even  inevitable  sequence.  Sequence  of 
ideas  in  theme-writing,  therefore,  means  a  naturally 
connected  series  of  thoughts,  as  the  putting  of  a  sub- 
stance into  a  test  tube,  the  heating  of  it,  and  the  obser- 
vation of  what  happens  form  a  naturally  connected 
series  of  operations.  Such  a  connection  of  ideas 


62  THE  PAEAGEAPH. 

always  exists,  although  the  careless  and  haphazard  way 
in  which  a  lazy  writer  often  flings  his  ideas  into  a  para- 
graph may  at  first  make  the  reader  doubt  the  fact.  An 
examination,  however,  reveals  the  relation,  and  it  is 
then  possible  to  reconstruct  the  paragraph  according  to 
some  method  of  sequence.  Such  a  sequence  may  be 
that  of  events  in  the  order  of  time,  that  is,  chronologi- 
cal ;  it  may  be  that  which  follows  from  the  known,  step 
by  step,  to  the  unknown ;  or  that  which  goes  from  what  is 
near  at  hand  to  what  is  remote.  In  any  event  the  result 
will  be  a  succession  of  ideas  natural  throughout,  logi- 
cal in  arrangement,  and  clear  in  connection. 

The  necessity  for  a  strictly  chronological  arrangement 
of  ideas,  whenever  that  is  possible,  is  shown  by  the 
faults  in  the  following  paragraph,  a  one-page  theme  on 
"  The  Track  Inspection  of  the  Pennsylvania  Rail- 
road ":- 

Each  October  the  road-bed,  the  track,  the  bridges,  the  sig- 
nals, and  everything  else  along  the  line  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  are  inspected  by  a  party  of  its  civil  engineers,  con- 
sisting of  the  chief  engineer,  the  superintendents  of  divisions, 
and  the  supervisors  of  the  subdivisions  and  their  assistants. 
To  the  division  having  the  best  general  line  of  track  a  prize 
of  one  hundred  dollars  is  given.  The  track  foreman  having 
the  best  one  hundred  feet  of  track  receives  a  prize  of  fifty  dol- 
lars. Early  in  the  spring  the  supervisors  or  their  assistants 
are  out  lining  up  the  tracks,  correcting  curves,  and  establishing 
grades.  The  workmen  under  them  are  busy  all  summer  getting 
ready  for  the  fall  inspection.  Freshly  broken  limestone  or 
ballast  is  laid ;  ditches  are  cleaned,  straggling  stones  are  gath- 
ered, many  of  the  stations  are  repainted,  —  all  of  this  being 


COHERENCE.  63 

done  with  the  purpose  of  attaining  prize  excellence.  The 
rails  are  particularly  well  laid,  and  no  water  is  allowed  to  accu- 
mulate below  them.  This  effort  to  secure  a  general  appear- 
ance of  excellence  does  not,  as  at  first  might  seem  probable, 
involve  a  neglect  of  detail,  for  nothing  escapes  the  scrutiny 
of  the  engineers.  Thus  it  happens  that  every  year  the  Penn- 
sylvania Railroad  has  its  housecleaning,  and  a  very  thorough 
one  it  is. 

In  this  paragraph,  although  the  use  of  specific  lan- 
guage gives  a  good  notion  of  what  the  track  inspection 
is  like,  the  details  of  the  work  do  not  follow  chronologi- 
cal sequence,  and  for  that  reason  the  Coherence  is  faulty. 
The  position  of  sentences  three  and  four  next  each  other 
is  especially  bad,  for  there  is  no  real  connection  between 
them.  To  improve  the  arrangement  it  will  be  necessary 
to  transpose  the  substance  of  the  first  three  sentences 
to  its  proper  place  just  before  the  last  sentence,  and  to 
begin  as  follows  :  — 

The  track  inspection  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  which 
takes  place  every  October,  is  looked  forward  to  by  all  the 
employees  of  the  road. 

When  the  paragraph  is  re -written  in  this  fashion,  it  is 
easy  to  see  the  gain  in  clearness  from  the  arrangement 
of  sentences  in  their  proper  sequence ;  and  this  gain  is 
due  to  increased  Coherence. 

In  the  preceding  example  Coherence  has  been  ob- 
tained by  an  arrangement  of  ideas  in  chronological 
sequence ;  but  there  are  plenty  of  cases  where  such  an 
arrangement  is  not  possible.  Hardly  any  of  the  para- 
graphs in  this  book,  for  example,  can  have  their  sen- 


64  THE  PAEAGEAPH. 

tences  arranged  in  the  order  of  time,  because  the 
matters  with  which  they  deal  are  not  events.  The 
ideas,  nevertheless,  do  have  some  relation,  although  it  is 
not  so  evident,  and  they  are  susceptible  of  arrangement 
in  a  logical  sequence,  according  to  the  principle  of  Cohe- 
rence. Here,  as  in  the  whole  composition,  the  writer 
will  find  it  a  good  plan  to  take  the  reader  sentence  by 
sentence,  step  by  step,  from  the  known  to  the  unknown, 
from  the  near  to  the  remote.  Every  sentence  that  is 
added  not  only  should  be  intelligible  because  the  pre- 
ceding sentence  stands  where  it  does,  but  also  should 
help  to  render  intelligible  the  sentence  which  it  pre- 
cedes. Given  this  rule,  the  writer  may  test  the  sequence 
of  sentences,  and  determine  what  should  be  the  position 
of  each  in  order  that  it  may  best  help  the  reader  in  his 
progress  from  what  is  clear  to  the  mind  to  that  which 
is  obscure.  To  illustrate  by  the  present  paragraph, 
the  known  fact  with  which  it  begins  immediately  sug- 
gests a  question  as  to  the  method  by  which  Coherence 
in  other  cases  may  be  secured.  The  answer  to  this 
naturally  comes  next,  and  is  stated  in  the  form  of  a 
rule.  Remarks  about  the  rule  follow ;  an  analysis  of 
sequence  of  ideas  in  a  definite  paragraph  is  given ;  and 
at  last  the  idea  is  completely  before  the  reader.  So 
with  each  sentence  the  advance  of  the  reader  is  a  natural 
one,  and  he  is  supplied  with  the  next  fact  which  the 
progress  of  his  information  has  prepared  him  to  receive. 
Finally,  the  gist  of  his  increase  in  knowledge  is  summed 
up  in  a  single  sentence,  as  follows.  The  sequence  of 
ideas,  in  order  to  seem  most  clear  and  natural  to  the 


COHERENCE.  65 

reader,  and  therefore  be  intelligible  to  him,  must  take 
him  from  the  known  to  the  unknown,  from  the  near  to 
the  remote. 

When  every  pains  has  been  taken  to  arrange  the 
sentences  of  a  paragraph  in  their  proper  order,  the  next 
step  is  to  indicate  this  logical  relation  of  ideas  in  such 
a  way  that  the  reader  cannot  help  seeing  it.  The 
reasons  that  were  given  on  page  29  to  explain  the 
necessity  of  showing  to  the  reader  just  what  is  the  plan 
of  the  whole  theme  apply  here,  and  it  is  only  necessary 
in  addition  to  show  the  means  by  which  the  reader  may 
be  brought  to  realize  the  logical  structure  of  a  paragraph. 

In  paragraphs,  the  relation  between  ideas  is  shown 
by  words  and  phrases  linking  the  sentences  one  to 
another;  just  as  in  whole  compositions  it  is  indicated 
by  transition  paragraphs  and  connecting  sentences. 
These  words  and  phrases  are  called  "connectives."  The 
simplest  and  most  frequently  used  connectives  are,  of 
course,  and  and  but.  They  perform  for  language  the 
same  work  that  the  signs  +  and  —  do  for  arithmetic ; 
and,  like  the  signs  of  addition  and  subtraction,  they  are 
the  first  means  that  a  child  learns  to  employ  to  express 
connection  between  ideas.  When  it  comes  to  the  writ- 
ing of  themes  the  student  often  finds  that  these  two 
words  are  still  almost  the  only  connectives  which  occur 
to  him  for  use.  He  puts  them  in  everywhere,  even  at 
the  beginning  of  sentences  and  of  paragraphs;  to  him 
every  possible  relation  of  thought  can  be  denoted  by 
the  words  and  and  but.  This  is  as  if  he  tried  to  use 
the  signs  -f  and  —  to  signify  operations  in  multiplica- 


66  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

tion,  fractions,  decimals,  and  proportion.  Unfortunately 
for  him,  relations  in  the  world  of  ideas  are  complex  and 
manifold.  There  are  relations  of  cause  and  effect,  of 
condition,  of  time,  of  concession,  of  opposition,  of  bal- 
ance, and  hundreds  of  other  intermediate  and  intermin- 
gling shades.  For  all  of  these  are  provided  a  multitude 
of  words  and  phrases.  The  Coherence  of  a  writer's 
paragraphs,  consequently,  will  not  be  complete  until,  in 
addition  to  a  clear  and  logical  arrangement  of  ideas, 
he  has  learned  the  use  of  the  words  by  which  these 
ideas  may  properly  be  connected. 

First,  it  is  well  to  discover  what  are  some  of  the  com- 
monest of  these  connectives.  In  the  second  paragraph 
on  page  61  of  this  chapter,  the  word  first  in  the  sec- 
ond sentence  connects  that  with  the  opening  sentence 
of  the  paragraph.  Then  links  the  third  sentence  to 
the  second;  therefore  the  sixth  to  the  fifth;  however 
the  eighth  to  the  seventh.  Each  of  these  connectives 
indicates  a  relation  between  two  sentences,  and  if 
omitted  would  leave  the  sense  incomplete.  Other 
words  that  are  repeatedly  used  as  connectives  are  thus, 
moreover,  nevertheless,  again,  yet,  since,  so,  on  the  other 
hand,  for  example,  accordingly,  in  the  first  place,  conse- 
quently, finally,  in  conclusion.  All  of  these  words  should 
be  at  the  writer's  command,  ready  to  slip  into  place  as 
needed. 

Beside  the  use  of  these  connectives,  there  are  other 
ways  of  joining  sentences  together.  The  adjective 
pronouns  this,  that,  such,  other,  another,  some,  same,  may 
be  employed  to  show  connection  of  ideas.  In  the  para- 


COHERENCE.  67 

graph  which  has  just  supplied  examples  of  connectives 
the  fifth  sentence  begins,  These  several  operations,  the 
phrase  referring  directly  back  to  the  preceding  sentence. 
Suck  a  connection  of  ideas  and  Such  a  sequence  at  the 
beginning  of  the  seventh  and  the  ninth  sentences 
respectively  perform  the  same  work  of  connection. 
In  these  cases,  however,  the  words  these  and  such 
modify  nouns  that  are  repeated  from  the  preceding 
sentence.  By  this  means  any  possible  ambiguity  is 
avoided.  Too  often  one  of  these  adjective  pronouns, 
standing  alone  as  a  pronoun  at  the  beginning  of  a  sen- 
tence, evidently  has  its  antecedent  in  the  sentence 
that  has  preceded  it,  but  exactly  what  noun  is  the 
antecedent  is  open  to  doubt.  It  is  usually  well,  there- 
fore, to  repeat  the  noun  in  the  new  sentence,  as  in  the 
cases  above,  and  then  there  can  be  no  room  for  mistake. 
If  a  pronoun  proves  really  necessary  at  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence,  it  must  be  clear  at  a  glance  what  word 
in  the  sentence  before  it  serves  as  antecedent.  When 
there  is  the  least  uncertainty  on  that  point,  the  connec- 
tion between  the  two  sentences,  however  simple  it  may 
be  in  thought,  is  not  brought  out  in  expression.  The 
use  of  adjective  pronouns  as  connectives,  therefore, 
requires  considerable  care,  lest  they  confuse  the  reader, 
instead  of  indicating  to  him  the  logical  relation  of 
ideas. 

The  need  of  connectives  to  join  sentences  together  is 
as  great  as  the  need  of  mortar  between  the  stones  of  a 
building.  Without  connectives  the  sentences*  have  a 
tendency  to  fall  apart.  There  is  nothing  to  show  that 


68  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

each  sentence  is  in  the  position  where,  logically  speak- 
ing, it  should  be.  As  a  result,  a  paragraph  in  which 
connectives  are  not  used,  no  matter  how  careful  the 
arrangement  of  ideas  may  really  be,  is  in  effect  inco- 
herent. The  paragraph  from  which  examples  of  con- 
nectives were  taken  reads,  when  those  words  are  all 
removed,  as  follows  :  — 

The  especial  force  of  the  phrase  "sequence  of  ideas" 
may  perhaps  best  be  brought  out  by  a  comparison  with  the 
sequence  of  operations  in  a  chemical  experiment.  The 
student  collects  his  apparatus  and  material.  He  starts  the 
experiment  and  performs  in  order  the  operations  indicated. 
The  fact  that  he  has  begun  with  operation  A  makes  it  neces- 
sary that  he  should  next  perform  B ;  that  involves  his  doing 
C  at  once,  and  so  on.  They  connect  themselves  in  a  natural 
and  even  inevitable  sequence.  Sequence  of  ideas  in  theme- 
writing  means  a  naturally  conuected  series  of  thoughts,  as 
the  putting  of  a  substance  into  a  test  tube,  the  heating  of  it, 
and  the  observation  of  what  happens  form  a  naturally  con- 
nected series  of  operations.  It  always  exists,  although  the 
careless  and  haphazard  way  in  which  a  lazy  writer  often 
flings  his  ideas  into  a  paragraph  may  at  first  make  the 
reader  doubt  the  fact.  An  examination  reveals  the  rela- 
tion, and  it  is  then  possible  to  reconstruct  the  paragraph 
according  to  some  method  of  sequence.  It  may  be  that  of 
events,  etc. 

In  the  paragraph  thus  mutilated  the  student  cannot 
fail  to  notice  the  loss  in  clearness  that  comes  from  the 
omission  of  all  connectives.  In  some  places  there  seems 
to  be  a  complete  break  in  the  train  of  thought,  in  other 
places  the  meaning  is  not,  as  it  should  be,  evident  at 


COHERENCE.  69 

a  glance.  Furthermore,  the  sentences  do  not  read 
smoothly,  and  the  jerky  and  choppy  effect  which  they 
produce  is  due  principally  to  the  absence  of  connecting 
words.  One  example  is  enough  to  show  the  imperative 
necessity  of  such  a  careful  use  of  connectives  as  shall 
indicate,  beyond  possibility  of  mistake,  the  logical 
structure  of  the  paragraph. 

When  sentences  are  thus  joined  together  the  sequence 
of  ideas  in  each  paragraph  should  be  reasonably  clear. 
Connecting  words,  it  must  however  be  remembered,  do 
not  create  this  sequence,  but  merely  make  it  evident 
to  the  reader.  To  secure  Coherence,  the  writer  must 
first  be  sure  that  the  thoughts  in  any  paragraph  are 
arranged  in  the  order  which  is  most  clear  and  natural. 
He  then  chooses  his  connectives  to  exhibit  the  clearness 
and  naturalness  of  that  order.  A  man  cannot  make  a 
paragraph  coherent  by  dropping  a  however  into  one  sen- 
tence, a  so  into  the  next,  a  nevertheless  into  the  third, 
and  so  on.  He  might  as  well  expect  to  make  the  wind 
blow  from  the  north  by  turning  his  weather  vane  in  that 
direction.  The  words  must  grow  naturally  out  of  the 
inevitable  course  of  the  thought,  else  they  are  as  false 
and  flimsy  as  flowers  of  tissue  paper.  Dogberry,  in 
"  Much  Ado  About  Nothing,"  is  a  man  who  has  lived 
long  enough  to  discover  that  thinking  men  are  expected 
to  define  and  designate  the  order  of  their  thoughts  by 
words  such  as  first  and  lastly ;  but  his  native  stupidity 
is  such  that  he  never  realizes  that  these  words  do  not 
supply  the  place  of  ideas.  He  consequently  runs  full 
upon  the  ridicule  of  Don  Pedro. 


70  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

Dogberry.  Marry,  sir,  they  have  committed  false  report; 
moreover,  they  have  spoken  untruths ;  secondarily,  they  are 
slanders ;  sixth  and  lastly,  they  have  belied  a  lady ;  thirdly, 
they  have  verified  unjust  things ;  and,  to  conclude,  they  are 
lying  knaves. 

Don  Pedro.  First,  I  ask  thee  what  they  have  done; 
thirdly,  I  ask  thee  what's  their  offence;  sixth  and  lastly, 
why  they  are  committed;  and,  to  conclude,  what  you  lay  to 
their  charge. 

The  case  of  Dogberry  differs  not  in  kind  but  only  in 
degree  from  that  of  the  man  who  does  not  attend  first 
of  all  to  the  careful  and  logical  arrangement  of  his  ideas, 
letting  the  question  of  connectives  follow  after,  as  a 
matter  of  course. 

The  principle  of  Coherence  as  applied  to  paragraphs 
requires  that  the  arrangement  of  ideas  shall  be  clear 
and  natural.  The  sequence  of  ideas  may  be  chronologi- 
cal, or  from  the  known  to  the  unknown,  or  from  the 
near  to  the  remote;  but  it  must  always  be  such  as  to 
lead  the  reader  one  sentence  at  a  time,  each  new  sen- 
tence contributing  to  his  knowledge  the  information  that 
the  preceding  sentence  has  prepared  him  to  receive.  In 
order  to  make  the  reader  see  still  more  clearly  the  logi- 
cal relation  of  the  ideas,  the  writer  must  employ  con- 
necting words.  These  are  principally  connectives,  and 
adjective  pronouns  used  with  or  without  a  noun  at 
the  beginning  of  a  sentence.  Such  words,  however, 
merely  indicate  the  relation  of  ideas  in  the  paragraph. 
What  really  establishes  its  Coherence  is  the  close  and 
firm  connection  of  thought  which  nothing  but  a  logical 
arrangement  can  effect. 


EMPHASIS.  71 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  PARAGRAPH  :    EMPHASIS. 

ACCORDING  to  the  principle  of  Emphasis,  the  ideas 
that  the  writer  considers  it  most  necessary  to  enforce 
upon  the  reader  should  be  put  in  places  that  will  surely 
attract  his  attention.  The  places  where  his  attention  is 
most  active  are  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  what  he 
reads.  The  main  idea  of  a  paragraph,  then,  stands  the 
best  chance  of  impressing  itself  upon  the  reader  if  it 
receives  statement  in  the  first  and  the  last  sentences. 
The  first  sentence  should  ordinarily  indicate  in  plain  lan- 
guage the  subject  of  the  paragraph,  and  the  final  sen- 
tence should  sum  up  the  results,  and  close  the  matter 
with  a  last  word.  The  two  sentences  are  conspic- 
uous in  position,  they  should  also  be  significant  in 
thought. 

The  first  sentence  should  introduce  the  subject  of  the 
paragraph.  To  do  this  well  it  must  always  be  clear,  and 
should  usually  be  short.  When  one  person  is  introduced 
to  another,  any  statement  beyond  that  of  names  is  super- 
fluous and  likely  to  be  confusing.  The  main  idea  of 
the  paragraph  is  then  the  thing  which  first  catches  the 
eye  of  the  reader,  and  since  it  is  put  into  a  short  sen- 
tence it  can  be  comprehended  immediately.  Further, 
when  the  paragraph  is  a  part  of  a  theme,  some  words 
must  be  used  in  the  first  sentence  to  show  the  relation 
of  that  paragraph  to  the  one  preceding.  A  number  of 
considerations  are  thus  involved  in  the  construction  of 


72  THE  PAEAGEAPH. 

the  first  sentence,  and  careful  work  is  necessary  to  frame 
a  sentence  that  shall  satisfy  them  all. 

In  the  body  of  the  paragraph  should  be  placed  the 
details,  which  of  course  are  necessary  to  the  complete 
presentation  of  the  subject,  but  which  are  not  emphatic. 
To  put  at  either  end  pf  the  paragraph  a  sentence  that 
merely  contributes  one  fact  to  the  development  of  the 
main  idea  is  to  give  that  fact  undue  Emphasis.  The 
reader  thus  fails  to  see  the  relative  values  of  the  ideas, 
because  some  idea  which  is  not  especially  significant  in 
thought  has  been  put  out  of  its  proper  place  in  the  body 
of  the  paragraph. 

The  final  sentence  needs  care,  because  it  should  give 
the  last  word  on  the  subject  which  the  first  sentence 
introduced.  What  it  contains  is  likely  to  remain  in 
the  memory  of  the  reader,  both  because  it  is  followed 
by  nothing  adding  another  idea  on  the  subject  of  the 
paragraph,  and  because  after  it  comes  the  brief  pause 
which  is  instinctively  made  by  the  reader  before  begin- 
ning the  next  line.  If,  therefore,  this  sentence  gives  the 
conclusion  of  the  matter  under  discussion,  the  Emphasis 
of  the  paragraph  is  good.  So,  to  push  the  principle  still 
further,  if  the  words  that  briefly  phrase  the  main  idea 
come  at  the  very  end  of  the  final  sentence,  the  Emphasis 
is  even  better.  The  gist  of  the  paragraph  is  then  put  not 
merely  in  the  last  sentence,  but  in  the  last  words.  In 
this  way,  by  careful  attention  to  Emphasis  at  the  end  of 
the  paragraph,  the  final  impression  which  the  reader 
gets  will  be  that  of  the  conclusion  stated  about  the 
main  idea. 


EMPHASIS.  73 

In  order  to  bring  out  clearly  the  value  of  Emphasis 
in  paragraphs,  an  examination  of  the  chapter  on  the 
Unity  of  the  Whole  Composition  may  be  of  service. 
There  are  thirteen  paragraphs  in  the  chapter,  and  in  the 
following  synopsis  are  given  the  first  and  the  last  sen- 
tences of  each  paragraph. 


Unity  of  the  Whole  Composition. 

1.  The  first  thing  which  a  student  who  starts  to  write  a 
theme  should  realize  is  that  the  theme  must  be  about  one 
thing.  ...     It  is  highly  important,  therefore,  for  the  writer 
to  realize  at  the  outset  that  he  has  to  write  about  one  thing, 
a  single  subject,  clearly  and  unmistakably  separated  from 
everything  else. 

2.  The  principle  by  which  this  separation  of  ideas  and 
selection  of  material  are  accomplished  is  called  the  principle 
of   Unity  .  .  .   and  the   principle   that   decides  which   of 
them  shall  be  accepted  and  which  rejected  is  the  principle 
of  Unity. 

3.  When  a  man  sits  down  to  write  a  theme  he  must  re- 
member that  the  principle  is  a  practical  one  and  needs  to 
be  constantly  applied.  .  .  .     No  idea  is  admitted  until  it  has 
successfully  passed  a  rigid  entrance  examination  for  Unity. 

4.  A  specific  case  may  serve  to  show  more  clearly  the 
practical  value  of  the  principle  of  Unity.  ...     In  this  way 
the  writer  sifts  his  material ;  what  is  properly  relevant  to 
his  subject  he  saves  for  use,  the  rest  he  throws  away,  and 
the   principle   that   guides   his   choice   is   the  principle  of 
Unity. 

5.  Transition  paragraph. 

6.  The  first  of  these  violations  of  Unity  has  to  do  with  a 
false  beginning  of  the  theme.  .  .  .     Examples  of  this  sort 


74  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

show  that  in  theme-writing,  as  in  every  other  undertaking 
of  life,  great  advantage  is  gained  from  a  fair  start. 

7.  The  great  cause,  however,  of  all  this  trouble  at  the 
beginning  is  that  some  young  writers  seem  to  thinlf  that 
any  start  which  they  may  happen  to  make  is  necessarily  a 
part   of  the   theme.  ...     A  dozen  suggestions  may  seem 
plausible  for  the  beginning ;  but  only  such  a  one  of  them 
should  be  taken  for  the  opening  sentence  as  can  stand  the 
test  of  the  principle  of  Unity. 

8.  The  second  way  in  which  a  violation  of  the  princi- 
ple of  Unity  is  likely  to  occur  is  by  digressions.  ...     A 
constant  guard   against   such   digressions   is   necessary  in 
order  that  the  writer  may  keep  to  the  main  line  of  his 
thought. 

9.  It  is  not  enough,  however,  merely  to  select  such  things 
as  are   closely  connected  with  the   subject   and   to   reject 
everything  else ;  the  whole  composition  must  have  not  only 
Unity  of  ideas  selected,  but  also  Unity  of  expression.  .  .  . 
A  writer's  work  does  not  have  Unity  of  expression  until, 
along  with  every  fact  which  he  states,  he  makes  clear  the 
reason  why  that  fact  belongs  in  the  theme. 

10.  One  of  the   best  ways  of  attaining  this  Unity  of 
expression  is   by  attention  to  what  is  called  the  point  of 
view.  .  .  .     Throughout  the  theme  every  detail  should  be 
presented  from  one  unalterable  point  of  view. 

11.  When  one  point  of  view  has  been  chosen  for  a  state- 
ment, every  other  aspect  of  the  matter  is  thereby  excluded, 
...     To  secure  this  Unity,  there  is  need  of  a  fixed  and 
definite  point  of  view. 

12.  With  regard  to  the  point  of  view  one  caution  must  be 
given.  ...     It  is  determined  by  the  mental  attitude  of  the 
writer. 

13.  The  principle  of  Unity  as  applied  to  the  whole  com- 
position is  a  principle   of   the   first   importance.  .  .  .     To 
observe  this  principle  strictly  is  the  fundamental  condition 


EMPHASIS.  75 

of  producing  a  good  theme,  since  upon  it  depend  both  the 
matter  and  the  manner  of  the  work. 

Taking  the  first  and  the  last  sentences  of  the  first  para- 
graph, one  finds  that  they  contain  the  same  thought, 
with  the  difference  that  the  first  sentence  has  the  air  of 
introducing  it  and  the  last  sentence  of  finishing  it. 
There  are  thus  two  statements  of  the  main  idea,  and 
each  of  them  is  in  a  conspicuous  position.  The  leading 
thought  of  the  paragraph  must,  consequently,  attract 
the  reader's  attention,  and  will  also  probably  remain  in 
his  memory.  In  the  same  way,  each  of  the  other 
paragraphs  begins  and^ends  with  a  statement  of  the 
dominating  idea.  It  is  also  well  to  notice  that  the  first 
sentence  in  each  paragraph  is  fairly  short.  What  is 
needed  first  is  always  a  simple  statement  of  the  idea  to 
be  presented,  so  that  the  reader  may  apprehend  it  at 
once.  Whatever  modifications,  qualifications,  and  state- 
ments of  detail  are  necessary  should  find  their  places  in 
the  body  of  the  paragraph.  The  final  sentences  in 
these  paragraphs  happen  to  be  somewhat  longer ;  in  two 
cases  in  the  synopsis,  only  the  latter  half  of  the  sen- 
tence is  given.  Generally  speaking,  however,  there  is 
a  decided  advantage  to  be  gained  from  a  short  and 
vigorous  final  sentence.  It  serves  as  snapper  to  the 
whip.  As  another  point  in  beginning  a  paragraph,  it  is 
worth  while  to  notice  that  many  of  the  opening  sen- 
tences in  the  above  synopsis  contain  connecting  words 
that  refer  back  to  what  has  preceded.  In  the  first 
sentence  of  the  second  paragraph  the  words  this  separa- 
tion refer  to  the  last  words  of  the  last  sentence  of 


76  THE  PAEAGEAPH. 

the  first  paragraph;  the  principle  in  the  third  para* 
graph,  The  first  of  these  violations  in  the  sixth,  thu 
trouble  in  the  seventh,  The  second  way  in  the  eighth, 
and  Ms  Unity  in  the  tenth  are  all  expressions  that 
perform  similar  service  in  linking  paragraphs  together. 
In  the  ninth  paragraph  the  first  part  of  the  sentence 
as  far  as  the  semicolon  serves  as  a  connecting  state- 
ment; and  the  introduction  of  the  main  idea  of  the 
new  paragraph  is  made  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sen- 
tence. In  such  ways  as  these,  the  work  of  connec- 
tion which  usually  falls  to  the  first  sentence  may  be 
accomplished,  and  yet  not  impair  the  Emphasis  of  the 
beginning  of  the  paragraph.  Another  thing  which  may 
be  noted  of  the  final  sentences  in  the  synopsis  is  that 
they  often  end  with  a  word  or  a  phrase  that  conveys 
the  substance  of  what  has  preceded.  Four  of  these 
sentences  end  with  the  word  Unity ;  two  end  with 
the  phrase  point  of  /  view.  As  these  are  expressions 
that  indicate  the  leading  ideas  of  the  paragraphs,  their 
position  as  last  words  gives  them  every  advantage  of 
Emphasis.  A  study  of  the  Emphasis  of  paragraphs  as 
shown  in  this  synopsis  thus  gives  one  an  idea  of  the 
practical  value  of  the  principle. 

In  the  writing  of  single  paragraphs  known  as  "  daily 
themes,"  the  principle  of  Emphasis  is  of  great  impor- 
tance. In  such  a  paragraph,  standing  as  it  does  entirely 
by  itself,  and  being  of  such  a  length  that  the  eye  with 
one  glance  can  easily  take  it  in  as  a  whole,  the  begin- 
ning and  the  end  are  especially  prominent.  In  the  very 
first  words  the  reader  needs  to  know  what  is  the  subject, 


EMPHASIS.  11 

and  in  the  very  last  words  what  is  the  conclusion  about 
it.  Particular  care  must  be  taken  to  make  the  final 
sentence  emphatic.  If  this  is  not  done,  —  if,  for  ex- 
ample, the  writer  breaks  off  suddenly,  or  ends  with 
an  inconsequent  detail,  —  the  paragraph  seems  left  at 
loose  ends.  It  has  an  annoyingly  incomplete  appear- 
ance, as  if  the  writer  did  not  know  how  or  did  not  care 
to  make  a  neat  job  of  it.  The  paragraph  quoted  on  page 
24,  "Inside  a  Church  Organ,"  that  on  page  57,  "The 
Guitar  as  an  Accompanying  Instrument,"  and  that  on 
page  62,  "  The  Track  Inspection  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad,"  were  written  as  daily  themes;  and  an  ex- 
amination of  them  shows  the  great  value  of  Emphasis 
in  single  paragraphs,  and  the  purposeless  and  ineffective 
character  of  work  in  which  this  principle  has  been  dis- 
regarded. In  the  first  example  (that  on  page  24),  the 
opening  sentence  introduces  the  subject  in  a  general 
way  in  as  few  words  as  possible.  The  last  sentence, 
which,  it  may  be  remembered,  is  faulty  in  its  point 
of  view,  is  not  emphatic,  since  it  enumerates  details 
where  it  should  aim  to  give  a  general  impression.  A 
sentence  ending  with  the  phrase  which  occurs  in  the 
middle  of  the  paragraph,  namely,  "a  veritable  whirl- 
wind of  sound,"  would  make  the  Emphasis  of  the  para- 
graph much  better.  In  the  second  example  (that  on 
page  57)  the  Emphasis  at  both  ends  of  the  paragraph  is 
good.  What  the  paragraph  needs,  after  the  digression 
is  cut  out,  is  the  addition  of  more  details  to  bring  out 
specifically  the  characteristics  of  the  guitar  as  an  ac- 
companying instrument.  In  the  third  paragraph  (that 


78  THE  PAEAGEAPH. 

on  page  62)  the  first  sentence,  as  it  originally  stands,  is 
too  long,  and  is  encumbered  with  details.  As  it  is  re- 
written on  page  63  it  is  short,  introduces  the  subject  in . 
a  general  fashion,  and  is  therefore  emphatic.  The  last 
sentence  of  the  paragraph  is  admirable.  It  is  short  and 
comprehensive,  and  ends  the  theme  with  a  snap.  In 
these  three  examples,  to  sum  up,  the  body  of  the 
theme  contains  the  details  that  give  the  reader  an 
exact  and  definite  notion  of  the  subject  described.  In 
placing  them  in  this  position  the  several  writers  did 
well.  In  the  matter  of  the  first  and  the  final  sentences, 
however,  the  paragraphs  are  not  equally  good ;  and  it 
is  by  noting  the  differences  in  this  respect  that  the 
writer  is  able  to  estimate  the  value  of  Emphasis  in  the 
writing  of  single  paragraphs. 

The  principle  of  Emphasis,  then,  as  applied  to  para- 
graphs, prescribes  that  the  writer  shall  give  especial 
attention  to  the  opening  and  the  closing  sentences. 
The  first  sentence  must  introduce  the  subject  clearly 
and  briefly ;  the  final  sentence  must  complete  it.  In 
the  body  of  the  paragraph  should  be  put  details.  In 
single  paragraphs  the  principle  of  Emphasis  is  of  great 
importance.  By  thus  placing  the  main  idea  of  a  para- 
graph in  positions  where  it  will  certainly  attract  the 
reader's  notice  as  being  significant,  the  writer  does  his 
best  to  make  evident  the  relative  value  of  his  ideas. 


EMPHASIS.  79 


Summary  of  the  Chapters  on  the  Paragraph. 

The  paragraph,  like  the  whole  composition,  is  a 
group  of  ideas,  but  it  is  on  a  smaller  scale.  Like  the 
whole  composition,  its  construction  is  governed  by  the 
principles  of  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis.  Accord- 
ing to  the  principle  of  Unity  the  ideas  in  a  paragraph 
must  group  themselves  about  a  single  thought.  These 
ideas  must  not  be  distributed  through  several  so-called 
paragraphs  that  are  in  reality  only  parts  of  one  para- 
graph, and  one  paragraph  must  not  contain  several 
groups  of  ideas ;  but  every  group  must  stand  in  a  para- 
graph complete  by  itself.  Digressions  in  paragraphs, 
as  in  whole  compositions,  must  be  carefully  avoided. 
Ease  in  forming  paragraphs  is  gained  by  daily  practice 
in  writing  single  paragraphs;  and  such  practice  is 
especially  valuable  for  the  training  which  it  gives  in 
Unity.  According  to  the  principle  of  Coherence,  the 
ideas  in  a  paragraph  must  be  arranged  in  such  an  order 
as  will  best  make  the  sequence  of  thought  evident. 
For  events,  the  chronological  arrangement  is  generally 
the  right  one ;  for  other  cases,  the  arrangement  which 
begins  with  ideas  that  are  known  and  proceeds  to  the 
unknown  is  the  most  coherent  plan.  The  means  by 
which  relation  and  sequence  of  ideas  are  indicated 
are  connecting  words  and  phrases,  especially  those  of 
the  class  called  connectives,  and  words  such  as  some, 
such,  another,  etc.  These  words  serve  as  mortar  to 
hold  together  the  stones,  —  that  is,  the  sentences,  —  of 
the  paragraph.  It  is  the  proper  laying  of  the  stones, 


80  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

however,  that  forms  the  real  strength  and  Coherence  of 
the  structure.  The  principle  of  Emphasis  demands 
that  the  first  and  the  last  sentences  shall  give  a  state- 
ment of  the  one  dominating  idea  of  the  paragraph. 
The  first  sentence  should  be  clear  and  brief,  and  the 
final  sentence  should  give  the  last  word  on  the  subject. 
The  body  of  the  paragraph  should  Contain  the  state- 
ment of  details.  Thus,  by  the  aid  of  these  three  prin- 
ciples, a  writer  is  able  to  make  in  each  paragraph  a 
clear  and  logical  arrangement  of  sentences  developing 
a  single  idea. 

Exercises  in  Connection  with  the  Chapters  on  the  Paragraph. 

A  study  of  the  paragraphing  in  the  theme  on  p.  109,  entitled  "A 
Character  Worth  Having"  will  show  the  practical  application  of  the 
principles  of  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis.  The  following  are 
hints  for  a  detailed  examination  of  the  paragraphs :  — 

Unity.  Summarize  each  paragraph  in  a  single  sentence.  Is  there 
a  violation  of  Unity  in  the  first  paragraph  ?  In  any  other  paragraph  ? 

Coherence.  What  governs  the  sequence  of  ideas  in  the  first  para- 
graph ?  In  the  second  paragraph  ?  Account  for  the  small  number 
of  connectives.  Are  the  paragraphs  therefore  incoherent  ? 

Emphasis.  Is  the  Emphasis  of  the  first  paragraph  good  at  the 
beginning  ?  At  the  end  ?  What  of  the  Emphasis  of  the  second  para- 
graph ?  Are  the  details  in  the  third  paragraph  in  the  proper  position  ? 


THE   SENTENCE. 

f»-  f 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  SENTENCE:   UNITY. 

A  SENTENCE  has  the  same  relation  to  a  paragraph  that 
a  paragraph  has  to  a  whole  composition.  It  is  a  unit, 
but  a  unit  of  a  lower  denomination.  The  Unity  of  a 
paragraph  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  several  thoughts 
contained  in  the  different  sentences  are  all  grouped 
about  a  single  idea.  The  Unity  of  a  sentence  results 
from  the  fadt  that  a  sentence  is  a  simple  statement  of 
one  thought,  with  its  modifications  expressed  in  phrases 
and  clauses.  The  development  of  a  paragraph  depends 
upon  its  sentences ;  that  of  a  sentence  upon  its  various 
parts. 

From  the  reader's  point  of  view  the  principle  that 
every  sentence  should  be  a  unit  is  one  of  the  greatest 
importance.  For  him,  generally  speaking,  the  length 
of  one  sentence  measures  the  amount  that  he  compre- 
hends at  one  time.  He  takes  in  a  sentence  at  a  glance, 
and  takes  it  in  as  a  whole.  If,  now,  what  it  brings  to 
him  is  not  a  whole,  if  it  forms  an  incomplete  statement, 
or  two  statements  crowded  together,  the  reader  does  not 
get  from  the  unit  of  expression  a  unit  of  thought.  In 
order  that  there  may  be  no  confusion  of  this  sort  in  his 
mind,  each  group  of  words  that  represents  a  sentence 
should  represent  also  one  idea,  no  more  and  no  less. 


84  THE  SENTENCE. 

In  this  way  each  thought  is  shown  complete  and  single, 
an  independent  thing  separated  from  everything  else. 

From  the  writer's  point  of  view,  also,  the  principle  of 
Unity  is  one  of  especial  and  practical  consequence.  By 
its  means  he  is  able  to  make  a  separation  of  his  ideas,  to 
recognize  one  idea  as  it  stands  by  itself,  and  finally,  iso- 
lating it,  so  to  say,  in  a  single  sentence,  to  make  its 
Unity  evident  to  the  reader.  By  this  principle  he 
decides  what  modifications  and  qualifications  do  and 
what  do  not  belong  to  a  sentence,  and  accordingly  by 
it  he  tests  words,  phrases,  and  clauses.  For  the  writer, 
then,  the  principle  of  Unity  as  applied  to  sentences  per- 
forms a  twofold  service^  It  teaches  him  to  recognize  a 
thought  as  a  unit  to  be  expressed  in  one  sentence,  and 
it  forms  a  test  by  which  may  be  detected  in  that  sen- 
tence, when  it  is  written,  the  presence  of  any  word  or 
phrase  that  is  irrelevant. 

The  development  of  a  sentence,  as  has  been  said,  de- 
pends upon  its  various  parts ;  that  is,  upon  the  phrases 
and  clauses  that  contribute  to  the  main  idea.  Sub- 
ject and  predicate  form  the  nucleus,  and  round  this 
gather  different  fragments  of  thought,  many  or  few  as 
the  case  may  be,  which  unite  themselves  to  it,  and  so  go 
to  make  up  the  whole.  Only,  however,  when  a  person 
stops  to  analyze  his  mental  processes  does  he  see  that 
this  is  the  way  in  which  a  sentence  grows  up  in  his 
mind.  Usually  he  conceives  it  all  at  once,  —  subject, 
predicate,  and  modifiers  all  come  to  him  simultaneously 
as  a  whole.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  worth  while  to 
carry  this  analysis  a  little  further,  or  rather  Co  apply 


UNITY.  85 

the  method  of  synthesis,  and  to  see  how  a  sentence  may 
be  developed  by  its  modifying  clauses.  The  following 
examples  show  the  way  in  which  subordinate  ideas  may 
be  added  to  a  sentence,  contributing  to  and  qualifying 
the  main  idea,  without,  however,  violating  the  principle 
of  Unity :  — 

1.  The  man  who  works  his  way  through  college  has  a 
hard  pull. 

2.  The  man  who  works  his  way  through  college  has,  in 
spite  of  the  help  that  is  likely  to  be  given  him,  a  hard  pull. 

3.  The  man  who  works  his  way  through  college,  and  is 
obliged  to  earn  money  at  the  same  time  that  he  is  carrying 
on  his  studies,  has,  in  spite  of  the  help  that  is  likely  to  be 
given  him,  a  hard  pull. 

4.  The  man  who  works  his  way  through  college,  and  is 
obliged  to  earn  money  at  the  same  time  that  he  is  carrying 
on.  his  studies,  although,  he  will  probably  have  help  given 
him,  will  nevertheless,  owing  to  the  fact  that  his  energies 
are  so  severely  and  constantly  taxed,  have  a  hard  pull. 

5.  The  man  who  works  his  way  through  college,  and  is 
obliged  to  earn  money  at  the  same  time  that  he  is  carrying 
on  his  studies,  although  he  will  probably  have  help  given 
him,  will  nevertheless,   owing   to  the  fact  that  his   ener- 
gies are  so  severely  and  constantly  taxed,  have  such  a  hard 
pull  that  the  effects  of  it  will  tell  on  his  later  life. 

Here  the  original  sentence  has  received  as  additions 
various  subordinate  clauses.  These  clauses  are  not  so 
important  as  the  main  idea,  but  they  are  necessary  to 
expand  and  to  explain  it ;  they  add  the  details  to  the 
sentence,  but  they  do  not  destroy  its  Unity.  It  is  not 
meant,  of  course,  that  all  sentences  should  be  con- 


86  THE  SENTENCE. 

structed  upon  this  model.  Far  from  it.  Some  sen- 
tences are  long,  some  are  short ;  no  two  sentences,  any 
more  than  two  persons,  are  exactly  alike.  These  ex- 
amples merely  serve  to  indicate  one  way  in  which 
thoughts  may  group  themselves  about  a  central  idea  to 
form  a  sentence  that  is  a  unit.  Still,  no  matter  in 
how  many  different  ways  the  arrangement  may  be  made, 
the  various  members  of  a  sentence  have  what  may  be 
called  an  organic  relation,  and  taken  as  a  whole  they 
should  always  give  complete  expression  to  one  idea. 

This  organic  relation  of  the  members  of  a  sentence 
is  the  fact  which  the  writer  of  themes  needs  most  of  all 
to  appreciate,  and  by  which  he  must  guide  his  own 
work.  He  must  take  into  consideration  matters  of 
co-ordinate  and  subordinate  clauses,  of  participial  con- 
structions, of  prepositional  phrases,  —  in  other  words,  the 
construction  of  the  sentence  in  its  grammatical  aspect. 
This  organic  relation  as  made  evident  in  the  grammati- 
cal structure  he  may  realize  most  quickly  and  put  to 
practice  in  his  own  work  most  conveniently  by  study 
of  what  is  known  as  the  periodic  sentence.  A  periodic 
sentence  is  one  so  constructed  that  it  is  impossible  for 
the  .sense  to  be  complete  before  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence. The  object  of  the  verb,  a  necessary  part  of  the 
predicate,  an  indispensable  prepositional  phrase,  an 
inversion  which  puts  the  subject  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence, — any  one  of  these  may,  by  rendering  the 
sentence  grammatically  and  logically  incomplete  until 
the  very  last  words,  make  it  periodic.  The  examples 
given  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  and  also  the  sentence 


UNITY.  87 

preceding  this,  are  periodic  sentences.  In  the  first 
four  examples  the  last  word  of  the  sentence  is  the 
object  of  the  main  verb,  and  consequently  the  sense 
is  not  completed  until  the  word  pull  is  reached.  In 
the  fifth  example  the  presence  of  the  word  such  in 
such  a  hard  pull  makes  it  impossible  to  stop  as  before, 
for  the  word  requires  the  addition  of  a  dependent  clause 
of  explanation.  In  the  periodic  sentence  already  referred 
to  in  this  paragraph,  the  main  verb  is  divided  by  the 
insertion  of  a  participial  clause,  and  a  necessary  part 
of  this  verb  with  its  object,  namely,  make  it  periodic, 
is  not  supplied  until  the  last  words.  The  important 
point  to  be  noticed  here  is  that  in  all  these  examples 
the  writer  was  obliged,  before  he  wrote  down  his  sen- 
tence, first  to  conceive  it  as  a  whole.  He  could  not 
begin  the  sentence  with  no  thought  of  how  long  it 
should  last  or  how  far  it  might  carry  him.  He  had  to 
see  the  end  at  the  same  time  that  he  saw  the  beginning. 
So  with  all  periodic  sentences,  the  peculiarities  of  the 
grammatical  construction  make  it  natural  for  one  sen- 
tence to  express  one  idea. 

In  a  periodic  sentence  the  grammatical  requirements 
are  such  that  the  idea  which  it  conveys  must  be  a  unit. 
For  this  reason  the  practice  of  making  as  many  sentences 
as  possible  periodic  in  form  is  recommended  as  the  best 
method  for  bringing  an  inexperienced  writer  into  the 
habit  of  giving  his  sentences  Unity.  Such  practice 
will  strengthen  his  writing  at  one  of  the  points  in  which 
it  is  likely  to  be  weakest.  The  great  fault  in  most  of 
the  sentences  found  in  themes  is  that  they  are  not 


88  THE  SENTENCE. 

formed.  They  are  simply  written  down  in  any  fashion. 
The  necessity  of  making  a  sentence  periodic  requires 
the  writer  to  stop  to  consider  its  form.  Stopping  thus 
to  think  how  his  sentence  is  to  be  constructed  and  how 
and  where  it  is  to  end,  he  naturally  takes  thought  also 
as  to  what  ideas  it  shall  contain,  and  so  makes  an  effort 
to  give  it  Unity.  It  must  not  be  supposed, 'however, 
that  the  periodic  sentence  affords  the  regulation  pattern 
and  the  normal  type  of  sentence  structure,  for  such  is 
far  from  the  case.  Its  opposite,  th^^p^e_^ejrtence,  in 
which  the  sense  is  complete  at  one  or  more  places  before 
the  end,  is  as  a  matter  of  fact  much  more  common  in 
good  writing.  Questions  of  the  comparative  frequency 
and  advantage  of  the  use  of  each  are  points  that  are 
not  here  of  the  first  importance.  The  thing  for  the 
writer  of  themes  to  realize  and  to  accept  is  the  fact- that 
great  gain  in  ability  to  conceive  his  ideas  as  units  comes 
from  practice  in  giving  them  the  form  of  periodic 
sentences. 

The  danger  of  a  violation  of  Unity  in  sentences  must 
be  constantly  guarded  against.  A  sentence  occupies 
less  space  than  a  paragraph,  and  so,  in  inverse  ratio, 
a  violation  of  Unity  in  it  is  much  more  glaring.  Some 
of  the  ways  in  which  the  principle  is  commonly  disre- 
garded it  is  well  to  speak  of  in  detail. 

The  loose  sentence  is,  as  was  implied  above,  by  its 
very  grammatical  form,  peculiarly  open  to  violations 
of  Unity  at  the  hands  of  a  careless  writer.  To  such 
a  person  it  never  occurs  to  deal  with  his  ideas  a$  units, 
each  in  a  sentence  by  itself.  When  he  sits  down  to 


UNITY.       ,  89 

write  he  strings  one  idea  after  another,  connecting  them 
at  random  by  and,  for,  but,  so,  or  yet,  stopping  at  con- 
venient intervals  to  put  in  a  period  and  then  to  take 
a  fresh  start.  This  practice  produces  in  composition 
what  is  known  as  the  "bad  loose  sentence,"  and  is  at  once 
easy  and  fatal.  It  is  because  the  untrained  writer  so  in- 
evitably falls  into  this  error,  and  thereby  renders  him- 
self incapable  of  conceiving  a  sentence  as  a  unit,  that  he 
is  advised  to  make  as  many  -of  his  sentences  as  possible 
periodic.  The  utter  lack  of  Unity  in  such  bad  loose 
sentences  is  shown  by  the  following  examples  :  — 

1.  I  had  been  in  Boston  before,  but  only  for  three  or  four 
days,  /so^I  knew  nothing  about  the  streets,  which,  by  the 
way,  seem  especially  crooked  to  me,  coming  as  I  do  from  \ 
Chicago,  where  they  are  very  straight  and  regular. 

2.  The  room  used  for  the  purpose  is  in  the  basement,  and 
as  soon  as  the  girls  are  dismissed  at  recess  there  is  a  wild 
rush  downstairs,  for  each  one  knows  that  if  she  does  not  get 
there  first  the  choicest  morsels  will  be  gone,  and  not  only 
that,  but  she  may  get  nothing  at  all  to  eat,  for  the  presid- 
ing goddess  is  a  close  calculator. 

In  each  of  these  cases  the  writer  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sentence  had  no  notion  whatever  what  the  end 
would  be.  It  was  entirely  a  matter  of  chance.  Under 
such  circumstances,  the  sentence  could  not,  except  by 
accident,  have  Unity.  Sentences  of  this  sort,  then, 
should  be  entirely  avoided,  as  being  flagrant  violations 
of  the  principle  that  a  single  sentence  should  present 
but  a  single  idea. 

The  careless  and  easy  notions  about  the  construction 


90  THE  SENTENCE. 

of  sentences  that  produce  in  some  writers  bad  loose 
sentences  are  responsible  in  other  writers  for  results 
exactly  opposite,  but  equally  bad.  Frequently  a  sen- 
tence is  broken  in  two  at  a  point  where  co-ordinate 
clauses  are  connected  by  the  word  and  or  but.  The 
proper  use  of  these  two  conjunctions  is  in  connecting 
not  whole  sentences  but  parts  of  sentences.  Hence  it 
is  very  rarely  well  to  begin  a  sentence  with  and  or 
_but.  In  applying  this  rule,  however,  to  sentences  con- 
taining the  fault  under  discussion,  the  writer  should  not 
go  through  his  work  and  strike  out  as  superfluous  each 
and  and  but  in  this  position ;  but  he  should  try  if  pos- 
sible to  make  any  two  such  sentences  into  one,  and  thus 
allow  the  connective  to  perform  its  proper  function. 
The  following  examples  illustrate  this  fault:  — 

1.  In  applying  fhe  rule,  however,  to  sentences  containing 
the  fault  under  discussion,  the  writer  should  not  go  through 
his  work  and  strike  out  as  superfluous  each  and  and  but  in 
this  position.     But  he  should  try  if  possible  to  make  any 
two  such  sentences  into  one,  and  thus  allow  the  connective 
to  perform  its  proper  function. 

2.  Touchstone  did  not  care  much  for  this  kind  of  life. 
He  said  that  it  was  too  slow.    And  it  was  not  near  enough  to 
court  life  for  him.     There  were  no  fine  ladies  and  gentle- 
men to  talk  to.     But  it  seems  that  later  he  became  more 
pleased  with  it ;  for  he  fell  in  love  with  a  country  girl. 

3.  De  Wilton  was  a  young  knight,  and  he  was  in  love 
with  Clare.    Marmion  also  pretended  to  love  the  same  lady. 
But  desired  really  her  riches  and  estates. 

4.  He  told  me  that  I  should  be  able  to  prepare  in  three 
years.     And  he  assured  me  that  it  probably  would  not  be 
hard  work. 


UNITY.  91 

r>.  This  teacher  was  always  spying  upon  us  at  all  hours. 
And  if  he  found  anything  wrong,  he  made  a  note  of  it,  and 
told  the  principal. 

In  each  of  these  cases  the  remedy  is  to  unite  the  parts 
of  the  sentence,  and  so  to  make  that  which  is  already  a 
unit  in  thought  also  a  unit  in  expression. 

Subordinate  as  well  as  co-ordinate  clauses  are  fre- 
quently detached  in  the  same  way,  and  given  a  posi- 
tion as  independent  sentences,  in  plain  violation  of 
Unit}^.  It  is  a  common  fault  of  young  writers  to 
separate  a  clause  introduced  by  while  or  that,  or  a 
final  participial  phrase,  from  the  sentence  to  which  it 
properly  belongs,  and  to  set  it  up  as  a  sentence  by 
itself.  Such  an  expression,  from  the  very  fact  that  it 
is  subordinate,  cannot  stand  alone  ;  it  must  depend  from 
the  sentence  of  which  it  is  logically  a  part.  A  mis- 
take of  this  sort  is,  of  course,  nothing  but  an  open  dis- 
regard of  a  simple  rule  of  grammar ;  but  nevertheless 
its  occurrence  is  frequent.  The  following  examples  il- 
lustrate this  fault :  — 

1.  The  first  five  weeks  of  the  term  were  hard.     While 
after  that  my  work  was  much  easier. 

2.  I  had  no  trouble  in  passing  the  examinations.     While 
many  whom  I  knew  received  conditions. 

3.  He  said  that  he  could  not  give  me  the  book.     And 
that  he  did  not  know  who  had  it. 

4.  Besides  all  this  the  finances  of  the  Athletic  Associa-. 
tion  were  always  in  a  good  condition.     The  gate  receipts 
from  the  games  we  played  always  being  sufficient  to  pay 
expenses,  and  sometimes  giving  us  a  handsome  surplus. 


92  THE  SENTENCE, 

5.  This  meeting,  which  is  held  early  in  the  term,  is 
always  well  attended  and  very  lively.  Some  person  who 
cannot  be  kept  quiet  always  giving  all  his  opinions  on 
every  subject,  and  causing  no  end  of  fun  and  laughter. 

In  these  examples  the  dependent  character  of  the 
clauses  referred  to  has  been  completely  ignored.  As 
each  of  the  clauses  makes  a  part  of  the  preceding  idea 
logically,  it  cannot  be  separated  from  it  grammatically. 
A  sentence  cannot  be  a  unit  expressing  a  complete  idea 
when  one  member  of  it  is  detached. 

A  comparison  of  these  several  violations  of  Unity 
brings  out  the  fact  that  in  all  the  cases  the  underlying 
trouble  is  the  same.  The  writer  has  failed  to  realize, 
or  at  least  failed  to  show  that  he  realizes,  the  principle 
that  each  sentence  should  be  a  unit,  containing  in  its 
various  parts  the  complete  development  of  one  idea.  He 
has  crowded  two  or  more  ideas  into  one  sentence,  or  he 
has  lopped  off  an  important  member  and  tried  to  make 
a  sentence  of  it  by  beginning  it  with  a  capital,  as  if  a 
sentence  were  dependent  for  its  identity  upon  nothing 
but  punctuation.  In  all  these  efforts,  however,  he  has 
been  guided  by  nothing  but  the  whim  of  the  moment. 
As  a  result,  his  sentences  are  without  form.  They  only 
half  do  their  duty.  Further  than  this,  a  writer's  para- 
graphs and  even  the  whole  theme  may  suffer  from  the 
lack  of  a  proper  principle  to  guide  the  construction  of 
his  sentences.  Sentences  make  up  both  the  paragraph 
and  the  whole  composition,  and  a  failure  to  keep  dis- 
tinct and  separate  the  details  of  thought  in  these,  the 
smallest  complete  groups  of  words,  is  sure  to  confuse 


UNITY.  93 

• 
and  obscure  the  thought  in  the  larger  groups.      The 

principle  of  Unity  in  sentences  is  thus  of  the  widest 
importance,  and  the  neglect  of  it  produces  serious  con- 
sequences. 

Since,  then,  the  sentence  has  the  same  relation  to  the 
paragraph  that  the  paragraph  has  to  the  composition,  the 
principle  of  Unity  as  applied  to  sentences  demands  that 
each  sentence  shall  contain  the  development  of  one  idea. 
A  sentence  thus  constructed  aids  the  reader  in  com- 
prehending and  the  writer  in  conceiving  ideas  as  units. 
The  development  of  a  sentence  depends  upon  its  various 
parts,  and  the  different  members  taken  together  have  an 
organic  relation.  Practice  in  the  construction  of  peri- 
odic sentences  is  the  best  way  for  the  inexperienced 
writer  to  realize  this  organic  relation,  and  to  learn  how 
to  show  it  in  his  work.  Violations  of  Unity  occur  in 
(1)  bad  loose  sentences,  (2)  in  cases  where  a  co-ordinate 
clause  beginning  with  and  or  but  is  made  a  separate 
sentence,  and  (3)  in  sentences  from  which  a  subordinate 
clause  is  detached  and  set  up  as  a  sentence  by  itself. 
All  these  violations  result  from  the  writer's  failure  to 
think  of  each  sentence  as  a  whole,  with  parts  having  an 
organic  relation  to  each  other.  The  importance  of  the 
observance  of  Unity  in  sentences  is  great,  for  upon  it 
depends  the  strength  of  both  paragraphs  and  the  whole 
composition. 


94  THE  SENTENCE. 

• 

CHAPTER   X. 

THE  SENTENCE:  COHERENCE. 

THE  principle  of  Coherence  as  applied  to  the  sentence 
deals  with  the  relation  and  the  arrangement  of  words, 
phrases,  and  clauses.  In  paragraphs,  Coherence  is  se- 
cured when  the  sequence  of  ideas  is  clear  and  logical ; 
and  the  only  problem  for  the  writer  is  to  find  out  what 
is  the  natural  order  and  then  to  arrange  his  ideas  accord- 
ingly. In  sentences,  the  case  is  different.  Here  matters 
of  grammatical  relation  must  be  considered,  for  the  con- 
nection of  the  various  members  of  a  sentence  with  each 
other  is  chiefly  a  matter  of  grammar.  On  the  clear  and 
unmistakable  indication  of  this  connection  Coherence 
depends;  and  therefore  Coherence  of  sentences  is  the 
result  of  certain  rules  of  grammatical  constructipn. 

RULE  1.  Whenever  a  word  or  a  phrase  depends  inform 
or  in  sense  upon  another  word  or  phrase,  the  relation  be- 
tween them  should  be  evident. 

This  rule  applies  to  the  relation  of  verb  and  sub- 
ject, of  adjectives  and  their  substantives,  of  adverbs  and 
the  verbs  that  they  modify,  and  of  prepositional  phrases 
and  relative  clauses  to  other  parts  of  the  sentence ;  it 
applies  with  especial  force  to  personal,  demonstrative, 
and  relative  pronouns,  and  to  participles. 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  which  stands  in  place  of  a  noun. 
This  noun  is  called  its  antecedent.  Generally  the  ante- 
cedent is  expressed.  When  it  is  omitted,  as  in  the  sen- 
tence, "  He  who  runs  may  read,"  the  noun  which  stands 


UNIVERSITY! 


/UNIV 

Vg 


Or 

COHERENCE.  95 


as  antecedent  is  clearly  evident.  Coherence  require^; 
that  the  relation  of  the  pronoun  to  its  antecedent  shall 
be  clear  beyond  mistake,  both  in  the  way  of  connect- 
ing the  pronoun  with  its  antecedent,  and  in  the  way  of 
identifying  that  noun  as  its  antecedent.  The  following 
sentences  show  the  incoherence  that  arises  from  neglect 
of  this  rule :  — 

1.  John  told  my  brother  that  he  might  come  to  see  him 
if  he  would  let  him  know  when  he  would  find  it  most  con- 
venient. 

2.  There  is  a  door  at  either  end  of  the  _<^aj?,  although  in  //n> .  ^ 
some  cities  tihgp  are  made  with  a  door  at  only  one  end. 

3.  She  did  not  consider  it  right  to  translate  Virgil  and^vto^ 
Cicero  with  a  "pony,"  whkji  most  of   the   class   had   no 
objection  to  whatever. 

4.  He  is  so  good  an  organist  that  he  can  handle  on§x  *^*< 
admirably  the  first  time  that  he  plays  on  it. 

5.  Although  John  knew  that  he  must  learn  his  lesson  be- 
fore he  could  go  home,  he  struggled  against  it.     When  he 
found  that  he  could  not  get  round  it,  he  gave  in  and  learned 
it  in  fifteen  minutes. 

6.  Although  Jie_had    been    in    business   much    longer, 
Mr.  Adams  found  his  new  partner  surprisingly  ignorant  of 
many  details  of  the  business. 

7.  I  was  greatly  interested  in  yacht-racing,  yet,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  I  had  always  lived  in  Columbus,  I  had  never 
seen  one  before. 

8.  Most  of  the  men  had  arranged  their  own  costumes,  and 
I  ^,  they  made  tl\em  look  simply  ridiculous. 

9.  The  Record  which  I  bought  this  noon  is  an  enterpris- 
ing paper  and  costs  only  a  cent. 

The   folding-bed,  an  apparent  wardrobe  which   my 


96  TELE  SENTENCE. 

chum  always  speaks  of  as  such,  is  the  largest  piece  of  furni- 
ture in  the  room. 

11.    Good  nature  is  a  characteristic  American  trait,  and 
one  which  they  often  suffer  for. 

In  all  these  examples  the  incoherence  is  due  to  obscu- 
rity or  ambiguity  in  the  relation  between  the  pronoun 
and  its  antecedent.  Sometimes  the  antecedent  is  omitted 
altogether  (examples  3  and  5)  ;  sometimes  it  is  implied 
in  a  word  derived  from  it  (examples  4,  7,  and  11) ; 
sometimes  when  the  antecedent  is  expressed  it  stands 
near  another  word  which  might  serve  as  antecedent  for 
the  pronoun  and  so  ambiguity  arises  (examples  1,  6,  and 
8) ;  sometimes  the  pronoun  does  not  agree  in  number 
with  its  antecedent  (example  2)  ;  sometimes  the  pro- 
noun refers  to  a  meaning  of  the  antecedent  which  is 
slightly  different  from  its  meaning  as  used  or  as  quali- 
fied in  the  sentence  (examples  9  and  10).  In  every 
one  of  these  instances,  there  was  in  the  mind  of  the 
writer,  as  he  set  down  the  words  in  their  present  order, 
no  thought  of  possible  obscurity  or  ambiguity.  To  him 
the  relation  between  pronoun  and  antecedent  was  en- 
tirely clear.  He  simply  did  not  take  into  account  the 
fact  that  in  the  hands  of  an  untrained  writer  the  English 
language  is  a  difficult  and  obstinate  machine  to  manage. 
It  has  him  at  its  mercy  as  completely  as  the  bicycle 
has  in  its  power  the  person  who  is  beginning  to  learn 
to  ride.  A  constant  effort  to  overcome  the  native  diffi- 
culties in  either  case  is  the  only  thing  that  will  finally 
give  mastery.  In  sentences  these  difficulties  are  defi- 
nite and  well  known,  and  one  of  the  most  vexing  of 
them  is  the  proper  use  of  pronouns. 


COHEEENCE.  97 

The  proper  use  of  participles  is  also  determined  by 
the  first  rule  of  Coherence.  A  participle  is  one  of  the 
forms  of  the  verb;  like  all  forms  of  the  verb,  it  has 
tense  and  voice,  and  is  transitive  or  intransitive  ;  like 
the  infinitive,  it  is  without  a  subject.  When  a  partici- 
ple serves  with  an  auxiliary  to  form  certain  tenses  of 
the  verb,  and  when  it  is  used  as  a  verbal  noun  (in  which 
case  it  can  hardly  be  called  a  participle),  its  grammati- 
cal relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence  is  easily  seen. 
In  other  cases  its  grammatical  connection  is  with  a  noun 
or  pronoun  which  represents  the  subject  of  which  the 
action  implied  in  the  participle  is  asserted.  In  the 
expression,  Charles,  looking  out  of  the  ivindow,  etc., 
Charles  is  the  subject  of  the  action  implied  in  the  par- 
ticiple, and  so  the  participle  grammatically  belongs 
to  it,  much  as  an  adjective  belongs  to  a  noun.  The 
connection  between  the  two  words,  however,  is  not 
always  immediately  evident;  arid  for  this  reason  the 
proper  use  of  participles  is  a  matter  which  demands 
of  the  inexperienced  writer  a  good  deal  of  care.  The 
slightness  of  the  grammatical  tie  between  the  partici- 
ple and  the  word  to  which  it  belongs  puts  all  the 
greater  obligation  upon  him  to  make  their  relative 
positions  in  the  sentence  such  that  the  connection  be- 
tween them  cannot  be  mistaken. 

When  the  participial  phrase  stands  at  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence,  to  take  a  specific  case,  the  word  to  which 
the  participle  is  attached  should  be  the  subject  of  that 
sentence.  An  examination  of  the  four  following  sen- 
tences will  show  the  necessity  for  this  practice :  — 


98  THE  SENTENCE. 

1.  After  pouring  the  mixture  into  a  tube,  it  was  heated 
slowly. 

2.  After  pouring  the  mixture  into  a  tube,  the  book  di- 
rected me  to  heat  it  slowly. 

3.  After  pouring  the  mixture  into  a  tube,  I  saw  him  heat 
it  slowly. 

4.  After  pouring  the  mixture  into  a  tube,  I  heated  it 
slowly. 

In  all  these  cases  the  word  designating  the  person 
who  did  the  pouring  is  the  word  with  which  the  parti- 
ciple must  be  connected.  In  the  first  example  there  is 
no  such  word  in  the  sentence  ;  in  the  next  two  examples 
the  word  is  there,  but  it  is  the  object  of  the  main  verb, 
and  the  eye  does  not  meet  it  until  after  encountering 
the  two  subjects,  bcrok  and  I  respectively.  These  sen- 
tences are  accordingly  incoherent.  In  the  fourth  sen- 
tence, however,  the  noun  to  which  the  participle  belongs 
is  also  the  subject,  and  the  relation  between  the  two 
is  perfectly  clear.  The  practice  of  putting  a  participial 
phrase  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  is  not  always  to 
be  recommended ;  but  when  such  a  construction  is  used 
it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  noun  with  which  the 
phrase  is  connected  should  stand  as  the  subject. 

With  these  general  notions  as  to  the  proper  use  of 
the  participle,  the  writer  should  be  able  to  avoid  the 
incoherence  that  springs  from  false  participial  construc- 
tions, and  to  correct  it  whenever  it  does  occur.  The 
errors  that  are  caused  by  ignorance  of  the  functions 
of  the  participle  take  so  many  different  forms  that  it  is 
hard  to  classify  them.  The  underlying  fault  of  all  is 


COHERENCE.  99 

usually  that  the  relation  between  the  participle  and  the 
noun  with  which  it  is  connected  is  ambiguous  or  ob- 
scure. Study  of  the  following  examples  and  correc- 
tion of  the  false  participial  constructions  found  in  them 
will  show  the  student  the  commonest  and  most  serious 
offences  against  Coherence :  — 

1.  Returning  to  her  guests,  one  might  have  noticed  that 
her  manner  had  changed  perceptibly. 

2.  Being  petted  as  he  was  by  his  mistress  made  Fido  a 
spoiled  dog. 

3.  Tardiness  is  punished  by  staying  after  school. 

S     4.    The  heavy  rain  continuing  made  coming  home  in  a 
carriage  an  absolute  necessity. 

J&  I  had  scarce  time  to  catch  my  breath  in,  and  be  ready 
to  meet  her,  as  she  stepped  upon  the  deck,  smiling,  and 
making  my  best  bow,  which  was  now  vastly  finer  than  some 
months  before. 

6.  I  observed   that   crystals  were  formed.     Being  in  a 
test  tube,  I  could  watch  them  grow. 

7.  Wrinkled,   painted,   with    an    irritable   temper    and 
affected   manners,  Johnson  bestowed  on  her   during   the 
whole  of  his  life  the  most  sincere  love,  and  mourned  her 
death  as  a  loss  inconsolable. 

8.  The  old  Forge  House  at  Fulton  Chain  was  struck  by 
lightning  last  evening  during  a  heavy  thunder  shower,  tear- 
ing away  a  wall  from  the  roof  to  the  basement,  and  demol- 
ishing the  bar-room  and  the  laundry. 

9.  The  first  gas  which  I  collected  exploded  with  a  sharp 
report,  showing  the  presence  of  air.     The  second  tube  of 
gas  burned  with  less  noise,  being  purer. 

^      10.   The  gas  which  had  collected  in  the  bottle  on  being 
touched  with  a  match  lit  and  burned. 


100  THE   SENTENCE. 

Iii  the  correction  of  these  errors  it  will  often  be  found 
that  it  is  impossible  to  retain  the  participial  construction. 
Sometimes  the  only  thing  that  will  produce  Coherence 
is  a  change  to  the  construction  of  a  dependent  clause, 
in  which  the  word  that  was  formerly  slighted  may  have 
the  full  rights  of  a  subject,  and  may  also  perform  the 
duties  belonging  to  that  position.  The  whole  question 
of  participles  is  one  of  the  most  vexing  with  which  the 
young  writer  has  to  deal.  A  theoretical  knowledge  of 
\  the  functions  of  the  participle  will  help  him ;  observa- 
tion of  the  practice  of  the  best  writers  will  help  him ; 
but  nothing  will  give  him  complete  mastery  of  this 
difficult  construction  except  constant  and  careful  at- 
tention to  its  proper  use  in  his  own  work. 

RULE  2.  Words  or  clauses  that  are  closely  associated 
in  thought  should  be  closely  associated  in  expression. 

In  the  English  language,  inflection,  that  is,  a  change 
in  the  ending  of  a  word  to  show  a  difference  of  gram- 
matical relation  (as  who,  whose,  whom)  is  but  little 
employed.  Compared  with  Greek,  Latin,  and  German, 
English  is  an  uninflected  language.  When  a  language 
does  not  use  inflection,  it  is  obliged  to  show  the  gram- 
matical connection  of  words  by  means  of  their  relative 
position.  In  the  sentence,  John  saw  Thomas,  the  reader 
knows  at  once  that  John  is  the  subject  and  Thomas 
the  object  of  the  verb.  He  knows  it  because  the 
grammatical  relation  is  indicated  by  the  respective 
positions  of  the  two  nouns  with  reference  to  the  verb ; 
and  this  relation  can  be  indicated  by  nothing  else. 
Coherence  of  sentences  therefore  depends  considerably 


COHERENCE.  101 

upon  the  proper  placing  of  words.  Adverbs,  for  ex- 
ample,  should  not  be  separated  from  the  words  that  they 
modify ;  a  relative  pronoun  must  stand  as  near  as  pos- 
sible  to  its  antecedent.  When  expressions  go  in  pairs,  and 
the  pairs  are  indicated  by  the  words  called  correspond- 
ents—  such  as  either,  or;  neither,  nor;  both,  and;  not 
only,  but  also  ;  on  the  one  hand,  on  the  other  hand  —  the 
first  correspondent  must  be  put  next  to  the  first  mem- 
ber of  the  pair,  and  the  second  in  the  corresponding 
position  just  before  the  second  member  of  the  pair. 
The  arrangement  of  words  according  to  these  directions 
aids  the  Coherence  of  a  sentence  in  two  ways:  first,  by 
grouping  together  parts  which  are  associated  in  thought ; 
and,  second,  by  separating  parts  which  are  distinct  in 
thought.  The  faults  that  the  second  rule  of  Coher- 
ence aims  to  correct  are  shown  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :  — 

1.  Here  the  cat-o'-nine-tail  jlags    grow  in    abundance, 
which  the  children  delight  to  have  in  the  fall. 

2.  About  seven  years  ago  a  man  was  made  Principal  of 
the  High  School  who  had  had  considerable  experience  as  a 
teacher,  and  who  thoroughly  understood  his  business. 

3.  If  a  student  has  done  his  work  well  he  will  know, 
whenever  a  picture  of  a  figure  is  placed  before  him,  in  what 
position  it  is  placed,  and  from  what   direction  the  light 
strikes  the  object,  at  the  end  of  the  first  term. 

4.  I  have  tried  to  sketch  the  plan  the  writer  had  in  view 
when  the  theme  was  written,  on  the  opposite  page. 

5.  I  found  that  I  could  onjy  db^five  problems. 

6.  I  evetftook  the  English  examination,  for  which  I  had 
not  studied/ but  in  this  I  failed. 


102  THE  SENTENCE. 

7.  Our  football  team  not  only  was  victorious,  but  also  we 
were  successful  in  baseball. 

8.  We  either  hadMx)  stop  the  game  or  lose  the  last  train 
home. 

9.  He  both  gave  meswhat  I  asked  for  and  more  besides. 
/3&. ,  I  knew  that  on  the  one  hand  he  could  not  get  here 

before  ten  o'clock ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  his  train  might  be 
an  hour  late. 

The  violations  of  this  rule  which  are  most  troublesome 
are  those  in  sentences  where  correspondents  are  not 
properly  placed.  The  fault  is  especially  confusing 
because  it  puts  the  reader  on  the  wrong  track  and  at 
the  same  time  makes  him  think  that  he  is  on  the  right 
one.  Correspondents  are  used  to  set  off  two  expressions 
one  against  another,  and  their  place  is  next  to  the  words 
that  they  connect.  The  purpose  of  this  rule  of  Co- 
herence, as  also  of  the  first  rule,  is  to  enable  the  reader 
to  see  clearly  what  the  writer  means  to  say.  Every 
possible  help  to  the  reader's  immediate  and  easy  under- 
standing of  a  sentence  the  writer  is  bound  to  give,  and 
help  by  no  means  the  slightest  comes  from  the  juxta- 
position of  words  that  are  closely  connected  in  thought. 

RULE  3.  Similarity  in  the  relation  of  ideas  should  be 
made  evident  by  uniformity  in  the  construction  of  the  sen- 
tence. 

According  to  this  rule,  an  infinitive  clause  must  not 
be  followed  by  a  participial  phrase  when  the  ideas  ex- 
pressed by  the  two  are  parallel ;  the  active  voice  must 
not  give  place  to  the  passive  voice,  or  the  reverse,  \yhen 
there  is  no  change  of  thought  to  demand  the  change 


COHERENCE.  103 

of  construction;  and,  unless  there  is  sufficient  cause, 
the  subject  must  not  be  changed  in  any  other  way. 
This  rule  does  not,  of  course,  require  all  sentences  to  be 
fashioned  after  the  same  pattern;  but  only  warns  the 
writer  against  varying  the  construction  of  parts  of  a 
sentence  where  a  change  is  not  only  needless  but  also 
confusing.  How  needless  and  how  confusing  is  such  a 
lack  of  uniformity  the  following  sentences  show :  — 

1.  Imagine  yourself  on  the  bank  of  one  of  our  beautiful 
rivers,  and  that  the  time  is  the  month  of  October. 

2.  On  approaching  the  house  I  perceived  him  seated  on 
the  piazza,  and  that  he  was  short,  thick-set,  with  hair  as 
white  as  snow. 

3.  He  appears  well-bred,  and  to  have  an  excellent  edu- 
cation. 

4.  His  general  method  seems  to  be  the  separation  of  the 
subject  under  discussion  into  its  elements,  and  to  obtain  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  them ;  then  to  unite  them,  studying 
the  construction  thoroughly  as  the  work  goes  on. 

5.  Why  do  people  always  put  out  the  flag  on  any  festive 
occasion  ?     In  the   first  place   because   it   stands   for  the 
United  States,  (and  of  course  any  patriotic  citizen  will  do 
that  much  for  his  country}  in  the  second,  because  it  repre- 
sents liberty  and  freedom ;  and  thirdly,  possibly Jrom  habit. 

6.  ^Qien  I  came  in  on  Monday  morning,  the  result  of  the 
examination  had  not  yet  been  found  out. 

7.  The  first  thingjto_be_done^was  for  me  to  ascertain  the 
number  of  my  section. 

8.  The  afternoon  w^as^s^ent^  in  sleeping,  but  just  before 
dinner  I  went  out  for  a  walk. 

9.  Since  we  felt  sure  that  he  would  come  to  the  dinner,  a 
place  was  reserved  for  him  till  the  last  minute. 


104  THE  SENTENCE. 

10.  After  he  had  been  gone  ten  days  I  received  a  let- 
ter from  him,  and  on  the  very  next  day  he  sent  me  a 
telegram. 

In  these  sentences  the  reader,  once  started  on  a  particu- 
lar construction,  is  led  to  expect  it  in  what  follows.  In- 
stead, he  finds  the  idea  which  would  naturally  be  put  in 
the  parallel  construction  expressed  by  a  totally  different 
one.  As  a  result,  he  does  not  understand  the  form  of 
the  sentence  so  quickly  as  he  might,  and,  further,  is  not 
helped,  as  he  should  be,  to  see  the  similarity  in  the  rela- 
tion of  ideas.  In  correcting  any  one  of  the  above  sen- 
tences the  student  may  adopt  either  the  first  or  the 
second  of  the  constructions  used.  The  point  is  that  the 
expressions  shall  be  uniform,  for  by  such  uniformity  of 
construction  the  similarity  of  ideas  is  made  evident. 

The  principle  of  Coherence,  to  sum  up,  requires  that 
the  arrangement  of  words  shall  bring  out  clearly  the 
grammatical  construction  of  the  sentence.  The  three 
rules  by  which  Coherence  may  be  secured  are:  — 

1.  Whenever  a  word  or  a  phrase  depends  in  form  or 
in  sense  upon  another  word  or  phrase,  the, relation  betiveen 
them  should  be  evident. 

2.  Words   or    clauses    that  are    closely   associated   in 
thought  should  be  closely  associated  in  expression. 

3.  Similarity  in  the  relation  of  ideas  should  be  made 
evident  by  uniformity  in  the  construction  of  the  sentence. 

By  observing  these  rules  the  writer  makes  it  possible  for 
his  thought  to  be  as  clear  and  coherent  to  the  reader  as 
it  is  to  himself. 


EMPHASIS.  105 

CHAPTER  XI. 

THE   SENTENCE:    EMPHASIS. 

IN  the  sentence  some  words  are  of  greater  importance 
than  others,  just  as  in  the  paragraph  and  the  whole 
composition  the  relative  values  of  ideas  are  different. 
On  these  words  in  a  spoken  sentence  the  voice  lays 
some  stress.  Unimportant  words  —  such  as  the  articles 
a,  an^  and  the,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  verbal  auxilia-^ 
ries,  and  the  lesser  words  in  the  sentence — are  passed 
over  quickly  ;  the  significant  words  are  dwelt  upon,  and 
thus  given  prominence.  The  important  word  in  the 
sentence  may  be  almost  any  part  of  speech,  or  in  almost 
any  grammatical  construction,  but  on  neither  of  these 
matters  does  its  value  in  any  sentence  greatly  depend. 
Grammatically,  of  course,  the  subject,  the  main  verb, 
and  the  object  of  the  verb  are  important,  and  the 
speaker  may  often  make  use  of  them  to  help  in  giving 
a  certain  idea  prominence.  What  really  makes  a  word 
emphatic,  however,  is  the  significance  in  that  especial 
sentence  of  the  idea  for  which  that  word  stands,  and  the 
stress  with  which  it  is  uttered. 

The  help  of  the  voice  in  denoting  the  important  word 
is,  however,  wanting  in  the  written  sentence.  Here  the 
emphatic  word  must  be  indicated  to  the  eye ;  it  must  be 
given  such  a  position  that  its  importance  shall  be  easily 
apparent.  The  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  sentence 
are  such  positions,  and  accordingly  the  principle  of 
Emphasis  as  applied  to  sentences  requires  that  the  most 


106  THE  SENTENCE. 

significant  words  in  the  sentence  shall  be  the  first  and 
the  last  words.  The  writer  is  not  to  begin  his  sentence 
at  random  with  an  apologetic  I  think  or  It 


he  is  not  to  start  with  some  modifying  clause  on  which 
little  stress  is  to  be  laid;  but  he  is  to  consider,  first, 
what  important  word  will  best  introduce  his  thought, 
and,  second,  how  he  may  form  his  sentence  so  that  this 
word  may  stand  at  the  beginning.  In  the  same  way 
he  must  make  the  end  emphatic.  The  sentence  should 
-  not  be  chopped  off  short  ;  it  should  not  be  allowed  to 
wander  away  in  an  ineffectual  succession  of  participial 
and  prepositional  phrases  ;  but  it  should  end  with  a 
word  of  weight.  It  is  not  possible,  of  course,  that  every 
sentence  should  both  begin  and  end  with  important 
words,  for  other  principles,  such  as  that  of  Coherence, 
for  example,  must  be  regarded  in  the  construction  of 
sentences  ;  but  at  least  one  end  of  the  sentence  should 
be  emphatic.  No  matter  whether  the  writer  is  able  to 
carry  out  the  principle  completely  or  not,  he  at  any 
rate  should  stop  to  plan  a  sentence  before  he  writes  it 
down,  and  should  make  an  especial  effort  to  put  at  each 
end  of  it  words  that  are  important. 

In  thus  planning  his  sentences  with  a  view  to  Em- 
phasis, the  writer  is  brought  face  to  face  with  a  serious 
difficulty.  In  English,  as  has  been  already  explained 
(see  page  100),  the  relation  of  words  to  each  other  is 
shown  largely  by  their  order.  Such  being  the  case,  any 
arrangement  dictated  by  Emphasis  must  not  run  counter 
to  the  order  of  words  that  grammatical  considerations 
require.  In  other  words,  English  idiom  must  not  be 


EMPHASIS.  107 

sacrificed  to  Emphasis.  Where  there  is  a  deadlock  of 
these  two  principles,  that  is,  where  the  placing  of  the 
emphatic  expression  at  the  end  will  result  in  an  order  of 
words  contrary  to  the  practice  of  the  English  language, 
there  is  always  a  way  out  of  the  difficulty.  Emphasis 
must  be  obtained  not  in  spite  of  the  requirements  of 
grammar,  but  by  means  of  them.  The  construction 
which  is  irreconcilable  with  the  desired  arrangement 
should  accordingly  be  done  away  with,  and  a  new  one 
sought  for  which  will  allow  the  important  word  to  take 
the  emphatic  position.  In  the  sentence  I  tried  to  get 
here  sooner,  but  a  bad  accident  delayed  my  train,  the 
important  expression  is  clearly  bad  accident,  but  as  the 
sentence  now  stands  it  is  unemphatic.  Any  change 
in  the  order  of  words  that  puts  bad  accident  at  the 
end  of  the  sentence  renders  the  sentence  unintelligible. 
The  difficulty  is  avoided  by  a  change  to  such  a  con- 
struction as  will  not  interfere  with  the  order  necessary 
for  Emphasis.  If  the  sentence  reads,  I  tried  to  get  here 
sooner,  but  my  train  was  delayed  by  a  bad  accident, 
the  substitution  of  the  passive  for  the  active  voice 
brings  the  important  words  into  the  emphatic  position. 
The  writer  must  thus  always  be  ready,  if  the  Emphasis 
of  a  sentence  is  faulty,  to  search  for  a  construction  dif- 
ferent from  the  one  which  he  has  first  used ;  and  he 
must  not  be  satisfied  until  he  has  found  one  in  which 
the  two  opposing  principles  can  be  brought  to  an  agree-, 
ment,  yet  in  which  both  Emphasis  and  English  idiom 
are  regarded. 

Most  sentences,  however,  in  which  the  Emphasis  is 


108  THE  SENTENCE. 

bad  owe  this  fault  to  the  fact  that  phrases  and  clauses 
of  trifling  importance  occupy  the  emphatic  positions. 
All  that  these  sentences  need  in  the  way  of  correction  is 
that  their  dependent  parts  shall  be  rearranged,  that  the 
insignificant  expressions  shall  be  put  away  in  the  middle 
of  the  sentence,  and  the  prominent  words  be  thus  given 
the  Emphasis  that  they  deserve.  In  the  following  ex- 
amples the  sentences  marked  a  are  unemphatic  through 
faulty  arrangement  of  their  subordinate  parts ;  and  in 
the  sentences  marked  b  the  rearrangement  of  phrases 
and  clauses  remedies  the  fault  and  brings  out  the 
Emphasis :  — 

1.  a.   The  Putnam   Memorial   E/ock  is  in  the  town  of 

Redding,  in  the  western  part  of  Connecticut. 
b.   In  the  town  of  Bedding,  in  the  western  part  of 
Connecticut,  is  the  Putnam  Memorial  Rock. 

2.  a.   I  notice  the  expression  of  a  man's  eye  and  the  way 

in  which  he  carries  his  head,  if  I  wish  to  form 
an  estimate  of  his  character. 

b.  If  I  wish  to  form  an  estimate  of  a  man's  character, 
I  notice  the  expression  of  his  eye,  and  the  way 
in  which  he  carries  his  head. 

3.  a.   He  held  his  long  arms  free  of  his  body,  and  swung 

them  like  flails  when  he  walked. 

b.  When  he  walked,  he  held  his  long  arms  free  of  his 
body,  and  swung  them  like  flails. 

4.  a.    The  institution  was  truly  a  college,  not  only  in  a 

strict  technical  sense,  but  also  in  the  broader 
application  of  the  word. 

b.  Not  only  in  a  strict  technical  sense,  but  also  in  the 
broader  application  of  the  word,  the  institution 
was  truly  a  college. 


EMPHASIS.  109 

5.  a.  It  had  always  been  my  wish  to  be  a  chemist";  and  so 
I  had  already  determined  to  come  to  the  Institute 
when  I  entered  the  High  School,  four  years  ago. 
b.  To  be  a  chemist  had  always  been  my  wish ;  and  so, 
when  I  entered  the  High  School,  four  years  ago,  I 
had  already  determined  to  come  to  the  Institute. 

Almost  at  the  first  examination  of  these  faulty  sen- 
tences one  can  see  what  are  the  important  words,  and 
what  rearrangement  will  give  these  words  the  emphatic 
positions.  When  this  is  once  done,  the  gain  is  evident. 
The  value  of  the  gain,  moreover,  is  as  great  as  the 
labor  to  obtain  it  is  trifling. 

In  further  illustration  of  the  importance  of  Emphasis 
in  sentences,  a  study  of  the  following  theme  may  be 
useful. 

A  CHARACTER  WORTH  HAVING. 

If  you  should  meet  my  friend,  you  would  see  a  tall,  slim 
man  with  a  short,  dark  beard  and  black  hair.  You  would 
notice  instantly  the  sparkling  black  eyes  and  the  high  fore- 
head. His  expression  suggests  a  thoughtful  disposition, 
but  a  few  moments  of  conversation  would  convince  you  that 
wit  and  humor  were  also  in  his  make-up.  His  manner  at 
first  seems  a  little  awkward,  but  his  easy  flow  of  language 
in  conversation  completely  holds  the  attention  of  the  hearer. 
You  would  be  pleased  to  have  my  friend  for  a  seatmate  on 
a  long  railroad  journey.  His  fascinating  way  of  telling 
stories,  by  which  the  most  common  occurrence  is  made  to 
possess  interest  and  charm,  is  supplemented  by  a  keen  obser- 
vation of  men  and  things. 

He  is  a  persevering  man.  A  poor  boy,  he  worked  for  five 
years  in  a  factory  to  earn  an  education,  in  the  meantime 


110  THE  SENTENCE. 

studying  evenings.  He  spent  a  year  teaching  school,  and 
earned  enough  to  attend  a  law  school.  At  times  he  wore 
the  worst  of  clothes  and  went  without  necessaries  in  order 
to  save  his  money.  A  lawyer  must  have  friends ;  he  knew 
scarcely  any  one.  A  lawyer  must  be  ready  to  speak  to  any 
and  every  body ;  he  was  extremely  bashful.  He  resolved 
to  make  friends  and  to  overcome  his  diffidence.  Persever- 
ance accomplished  both  these  resolves.  Perseverance  car- 
ried him  through  the  law  school.  Perseverance  caused  him 
to  start  in  his  profession  without  any  promise  of  success, 
and  perseverance  gave  him  success. 

He  is  a  kind-hearted  man.  He  is  fond  of  children,  and 
his  fondness  is  reciprocated.  Though  not  rich,  yet  during 
the  summer  he  often  invites  his  friends  who  are  not  so 
favored  as  he  to  spend  a  week  at  his  seashore  cottage.  No 
amount  of  money  or  persuasion  will  induce  him  to  under- 
take a  case  against  the  poor  or  oppressed.  He  has  himself 
been  poor,  and  with  the  poor  are  his  sympathies. 

He  is  a  contented  man.  When  he  had  nothing,  he  could 
be  content,  and  now,  in  better  circumstances,  he  can  also  be 
content.  This  contentment  shows  itself  in  his  cheery  talk 
and  in  the  fact  of  his  always  looking  on  the  bright  side. 
Happiness  with  him  is  a  commodity,  and  is  drawn  from  his 
immediate  surroundings,  whatever  they  are. 

In  the  first  paragraph  of  this  theme  the  same  cause  is 
responsible  for  bad  Emphasis  in  three  sentences.  If 
you  should  meet,  You  would  notice,  and  You  would  be 
pleased  are  all  unemphatic  beginnings.  There  is  no 
stress  whatever  on  the  word  you  in  distinction  from 
I  or  he,  and  the  position  that  it  has  in  these  sentences 
is  entirely  unjustifiable.  Further,  the  use  of  the  sec- 
ond person  where  nobody  is  addressed  is  in  itself  a 


EMPHASIS.  Ill 

fault.  The  end  of  the  third  sentence  is  also  unem- 
phatic.  In  the  second  paragraph  the  fourth  sentence 
may  be  made  more  emphatic  by  a  change  in  the  order 
of  phrases  and  clauses.  In  the  final  paragraph  the  last 
sentence  is  emphatic  neither  in  itself  nor  as  the  last  sen- 
tence of  the  theme.  So  much  for  the  faults.  The 
number  of  sentences,  on  the  other  hand,  which  have 
fairly  and  sometimes  noticeably  good  Emphasis  is 
large.  In  most  of  the  sentences  the  first  word  is  the 
subject,  and  as  the  sentences  are  short  the  subject 
cannot  help  being  an  important  word.  In  the  series 
of  sentences  each  of  which  begins  with  Perseverance 
the  Emphasis  is  well  brought  out.  Here  the  reiteration 
of  the  word  and  its  position  every  time  at  the  begin- 
ning give  it  a  prominence  that  makes  the  reader  realize 
its  full  importance.  No  other  sentences  in  the  theme 
are,  it  is  true,  so  strikingly  emphatic  as  these ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  in  extremely  few  cases  is  the  principle 
of  Emphasis  entirely  disregarded.  The  theme  as  a 
whole  is  interesting  and  forcible,  and  the  presence  of 
these  qualities  is  due  in  great  measure  to  the  good 
Emphasis  of  the  sentences. 

Another  point  to  be  noticed  in  connection  with  this 
theme  is  that  there  is  often  within  a  sentence  a  sort  of 
secondary  Emphasis.  A  mark  of  punctuation  in  the 
middle  of  a  sentence  forms  a  resting-place  for  the  eye, 
and  so  the  nearest  word  is  emphatic  in  position.  This 
application  of  the  principle  of  Emphasis  is  evident  in 
the  phrases  and  clauses  of  some  sentences  of  the  theme. 
The  word  charm  in  the  first  paragraph  and  educa- 


112  THE  SENTENCE. 

tion  in  the  second  are  words  of  some  importance  in 
their  respective  clauses,  and  they  stand  next  to  commas. 
In  the  fifth  and  the  sixth  sentences  of  the  second 
paragraph,  the  words  nearest  to  the  semicolons  are  im- 
portant. Toward  the  end  of  the  theme  the  words 
poor  and  commodity  are  followed  by  commas,  and  are 
thus  given  a  place  of  secondary  Emphasis.  If  the 
general  principle  of  Emphasis  is  a  logical  one,  there 
is  as  much  reason  for  applying  it  to  clauses  as  to  sen- 
tences. It  is  understood,  of  course,  that  in  neither  case 
must  there  be  a  change  in  the  order  of  words  such 
as  will  obscure  their  grammatical  relations.  Within 
the  bounds  of  this  limitation,  secondary  Emphasis  in 
clauses  and  phrases  is  a  thing  that  contributes  decidedly 
the  force  of  a  sentence. 

Another  means  of  securing  Emphasis  is  what  is  called 
,  ,>,  the  balanced  sentence.  It  is  illustrated  in  the  follow- 
,  »ing  example  from  the  theme  already  quoted :  — 

A  lawyer  must  have  friends ;  he  knew  scarcely  any  one. 
A  lawyer  must  be  ready  to  speak  to  any  and  every  body ; 
he  was  extremely  bashful. 

Here  one  half  of  the  sentence  is  set  off  or  balanced 
against  the  other.  In  each  half  the  grammatical  con- 
struction is  the  same,  but  the  thought  is  in  strong 
contrast.  The  similarity  in  form  thus  enforces  the  dis- 
similarity of  ideas.  The  structure  of  the  balanced 
sentence  is  so  plainly  artificial  that  its  frequent  use 
becomes  annoyingly  monotonous;  but  an  occasional 
employment  of  it  to  secure  Emphasis  is,  as  in  the  case 
above,  highly  effective. 


EMPHASIS.  113 

Still  another  means  of  obtaining  Emphasis,  as  illus- 
trated in  this  theme,  is  the  use  of  climax.  By  climax 
is  meant  the  arrangement  of  words  in  a  series  that 
begins  with  the  least  important  and  ends  with  the  most 
important.  At  the  end  of  the  second  paragraph  of  the 
theme  the  statements  of  the  different  things  that  per- 
severance enabled  the  man  to  accomplish  are  given  in 
this  order :  — 

He  resolved  to  make  friends  and  to  overcome  his  diffi- 
dence. Perseverance  accomplished  both  these  resolves. 
Perseverance  carried  him  through  the  law  school.  Persever- 
ance caused  him  to  start  in  his  profession  without  any 
promise  of  success,  and  perseverance  gave  him  success. 

Here  the  climax  is  one  of  sentences  in  a  paragraph;  but 
in  the  same  fashion  a  climax  of  words  in  a  sentence  is 
always  emphatic.  The  opportunity  of  arranging  words 
in  a  series  is  constantly  occurring.  Three  adjectives  or 
prepositional  phrases  modify  one  noun,  a  number  of 
statements  are  made  about  one  subject,  a  number  of  sub- 
jects have  the  same  statement  made  about  them.  In 
every  case  the  series  of  words  thus  arising  should  go 
from  the  least  to  the  most  important.  If  this  is  not 
done,  an  anticlimax  is  the  result,  and  nothing  is  more 
fatal  to  Emphasis  than  anticlimax.  The  following  are 
sentences  in  which  the  writer  should  have  employed 
climax  and  in  which,  owing  to  his  neglect  to  do  this, 
the  arrangement  of  words  is  unemphatic :  — 

1.  In  morals,  in  appearance,  and  in  manners,  he  is  dis- 
tasteful to  me. 


114  THE  SENTENCE. 

2.  The  new  process  is  more  nearly  perfect,  quicker,  and 
safer. 

3.  We  beat  every  school  team  in  the  state  ajid  even  the 
Harvard   freshmen,  and  we   also  won  from   all   the   local 
teams. 

4.  A  bad  accident  in  March  prevented  me  from  gradu- 
ating with  my  class,  and  from  attending  school  for  the  rest 
of  the  term. 

5.  Much  of  the  furniture  in  the  room  and  the  carpet  and 
the  wall  paper  are  dingy. 

To  improve  these  sentences  it  is  necessary  to  rearrange 
their  misplaced  words  so  that  they  shall  make  a  climax. 
When  this  is  done,  the  gain  in  Emphasis  is  apparent. 
It  is  natural  enough  for  a  speaker  to  make  use  of 
climax,  to  begin  with  his  weakest  argument,  and  so, 
advancing  step  by  step,  to  lead  up  to  his  strongest  one ; 
and  the  same  attention  to  climax  is  required  of  the 
theme-writer  in  arranging  the  words  in  his  sentences. 

The  principle  of  Emphasis  as  applied  to  sentences 
requires  that  the_writer  shall  determine  what  words  in 
a  sentence  are  most  important,  and  shall  then  give  them 
prominence  by  placing  them  at  the  beginning  and  the 
end  of  the  sentence.  In  thus  making  his  sentences 
emphatic,  he  must  be  careful  not  to  disturb  the  order  of 
words  which  the  grammatical  requirements  dictate.  In 
general,  Emphasis  is  secured  by  care  in  placing  depend- 
ent constructions  of  small  importance  in  the  middle  of 
the  sentence,  and  thus  making  a  place  at  the  ends  for 
the  words  that  are  really  significant.  The  balanced 
sentence  is  an  aid  to  Emphasis,  and  in  the  order  of  a 


EMPHASIS.  115 

series  of  words  there  must  always  be  a  climax.  The 
necessity  for  Emphasis  in  the  sentence  is  as  great  as  it 
is  in  the  paragraph  and  the  whole  composition,  for  it  is 
by  means  of  this  principle  that  the  writer  indicates  the 
words  that  he  considers  important. 


116  THE  SENTENCE. 

Summary  of  the  Chapters  on  the  Sentence. 

The  sentence  is  to  the  paragraph  what  the  paragraph 
is  to  the  whole  composition,  and  its  construction  is  gov- 
erned by  the  principles  of  Unity,  Emphasis,  and  Cohe- 
rence. The  principle  of  Unity  requires  that  a  sentence 
shall  be  the'  development  of  one  idea.  This  develop- 
ment depends  on  the  various  parts  of  the  sentence. 
Practice  in  writing  periodic  sentences  gives  valuable 
training  in  Unity,  because  it  makes  the  student  plan 
his  sentence  before  he  begins  to  write.  Violations  of 
Unity  occur  in  bad  loose  sentences,  and  in  sentences 
from  which  a  co-ordinate  or  a  subordinate  clause  has 
been  detached.  The  principle  of  Coherence  requires 
that  the  constru6tion  of  the  sentence  shall  be  such 
that  the  reader  may  see  clearly  the  relation  of  the 
words  to  each  other.  To  this  end,  the  relation  between 
words  connected  in  form  or  in  sense  should  be  made 
evident ;  words  or  clauses  closely  associated  in  thought 
should  be  closely  associated  in  expression ;  and,  finally, 
similarity  in  the  relation  of  ideas  should  be  made  evident 
by  uniformity  in  the  construction  of  the  sentence.  Ac- 
cording to  the  principle  of  Emphasis,  important  words 
should  be  put  in  important  positions  at  the  begin- 
ning and  the  end  of  the  sentence.  At  the  same  time, 
the  order  of  words  necessary  for  grammatical  clear- 
ness must  not  be  disturbed.  The  balanced  sentence 
and  climax  are  other  means  for  indicating  what  are  the 
important  words.  Thus  by  means  of  these  three  princi- 
ples the  writer  is  able  with  due  clearness  and  emphasis 
to  present  in  each  sentence  the  development  of  one  idea. 


WORDS. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

WORDS:   GENERAL  AND   SPECIFIC. 

A  WORD  is  the  unit  of  lowest  denomination  in  the 
table  which  is  made  up  of  whole  compositions,  para- 
graphs, sentences,  and  words.  As  a  mile,  a  rod,  and  a 
foot  each  represent  from  one  point  of  view  merely  a  cer- 
tain number  of  inches,  so  the  three  divisions  of  compo- 
sition already  studied  represent  in  the  last  analysis 
nothing  more  than  different  groups  of  words.  Of  the 
combination  of  words  into  these  higher  units,  enough 
has  already  been  said ;  the  work  now  in  hand  is  to  con- 
sider what  part  in  English  Composition  is  played  by  the 
lowest  of  these  units,  the  single  word. 

The  number  of  words  in  the  English  language,  ac- 
cording to  the  Century  Dictionary,  is  more  than  two/ 
hundred  thousand.  Such  an  enormous  stock  of  words 
to  express  our  ideas  does  not  exist  for  nothing.  It  could 
hardly  be  the  result  of  accident,  or  indicate  a  large  and 
unnecessary  surplus  of  language.  There  are,  compara- 
tively speaking,  few  duplicates.  Each  word  has  a  his- 
tory, an  individuality,  and  a  place  of  its  own  to  fill,  and 
thus  it  maintains  a  claim  to  existence.  The  dictionary, 
however,  it  must  not  be  forgotten,  contains  the  words 
used  in  every  branch  of  knowledge.  All  of  these  words, 
or  even  most  of  them,  it  is  impossible  for  a  person  of 

119 


120  WORDS. 

general  education  to  know,  and  still  less  to  use.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  number  of  words  needed  for  every- 
day use  in  writing  and  speaking  is,  in  proportion  to  the 
total  number  in  the  language,  extremely  small.  The 
ordinary  working  vocabulary  of  an  educated  man  is 
usually  estimated  at  three  thousand  words. 

Within  the  narrower  limits  of  this  vocabulary,  what- 
ever its  extent,  the  writer  must  be  thoroughly  conver- 
sant with  the  meaning  and  the  use  of  the  words  that 
it  contains.  A  word,  as  has  been  said,  has  a  distinctf 
individuality.  It  is  the  sign  of  a  certain  idea,  and 
whenever  that  idea  comes  to  a  writer's  mind,  he  must 
give  it  expression  by  means  of  that  word  and  no  other. 
Other  words,  to  be  sure,  may  have  nearly  the  same 
meaning,  or  may  convey  something  approximate  to  the 
given  idea ;  but  the  writer  must  not  be  so  easily  content. 
He  must  examine  words,  and  then  select  the  right  one. 
For  him  to  suppose  that  the  first  word  which  comes  to 
hand  will  adequately  express  his  thought  is  as  illogical 
as  it  would  be  for  him  to  feel  that  he  may  be  sure  of 
paying  for  any  purchase  with  the  first  coin  which  he 
pulls  out  of  his  pocket.  The  chief  thing  for  a  writer 
to  learn  about  words  is  to  distinguish  their  values  and 
uses,  to  have  a  word  for  everything  and  every  word  in 
its  place. 

This  distinguishing  of  the  meanings  of  words  is,  of 
course,  in  its  more  elementary  stages,  something  which 
everybody  does  from  the  time  when  he  begins  to  talk ; 
but  it  is  also  a  process  that  he  continues  or  should  con- 
tinue all  through  his  life.  With  the  constant  training 


GENERAL  AND  SPECIFIC.  121 

in  language  which  a  growing  mind  is  sure  to  give  itself, 
there  conies  a  steady  development  in  the  ability  to  dis- 
criminate quickly  and  exactly  the  finer  shades  of  mean- 
ing in  words.  This  development  is  aided  by  studying 
the  etymological  derivation  of  words,  the  history  of 
their  use,  by  collecting  into  groups  all  the  words  that 
express  different  shades  of  one  general  idea,  —  for  ex- 
ample, go,  come,  run,  move,  walk,  sally,  hop,  skip,  advance, 
progress,  jump,  leap,  start,  slide,  slip,  and  all  the  other 
words  used  to  express  motion  by  a  person,  —  by  the 
study  of  synonyms,  and  by  such  other  ways  as  are  used 
to  arouse  a  pupil's  interest  in  his  native  language. 
Such  studies  can  be  carried  on  independent  of  theme- 
writing,  and  they  give  the  pupil  his  first  knowledge  of 
kinds  and  classifications  of  words. 

When,  however,  the  student  comes  to  do  work  in 
English  Composition  he  is  met  by  another  distinction 
in  the  kinds  of  words,  and  it  is  one  with  which  he  must 
become  thoroughly  familiar  before  he  can  do  satisfac- 
tory theme  work.  It  is  the  distinction  between  general 
and  specific  words. 

Let  the  student  imagine  for  the  moment  that  every- 
thing included  under  a  given  idea  is  represented  by  the 
space  which  a  circle  encloses.  Thus  within  the  circum- 
ference of  a  certain  circle  is  contained,  for  example, 
whatever  answers  to  the  idea  of  boat.  If  it  is  desired 
to  narrow  this  idea  to  steamboat,  a  smaller  circle  drawn 
within  the  space  of  the  first  represents  this  subdivision 
of  the  first  idea.  The  second  circle  is  inside  and  not 
outside  the  larger  circumference,  because  steamboats 


122  WORDS. 

are  one  kind  of  boat ;  and  it  is  smaller  in  size  because 
the  class  steamboat  is  smaller  than  the  class  boat.  To 
narrow  the  idea  still  further  to  iron  steamboat,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  draw  a  third  circle  within  the  second ; 
and  to  represent  the  idea  iron  steam  yacht,  there  is 
required  a  fourth  circle  inside  the  third.  The  relation 
of  these  circles  to  each  other  stands  for  a  relation 
which  exists  among  these  words.  It  is  based  on  the 
comparative  extent  of  the  application  of  words.  It  is 
the  relation  that  exists  between  genus  and  species,  and 
it  is  accordingly  denoted  by  the  terms  "  general "  and 
"  specific."  The  words  that  are  represented  by  the 
larger  circles  are  called  "  general  "  words ;  those  repre- 
sented by  the  smaller  circles  are  called  "definite"  or 
"  specific  "  words.  This  classification  may  be  extended 
to  words  of  almost  any  kind.  Look  at,  for  example,  is 
a  more  specific  expression  than  see,  and  stare  is  more 
specific  than  look  at ;  fine  weather  is  general,  clear  and 
cold  weather  is  specific ;  happy  is  a  general  adjective, 
exuberant,  boisterous,  jolly,  are  specific.  Sometimes  the 
number  of  circles  between  the  outer  and  the  inner  one 
is  large,  sometimes  it  is  small ;  but  the  relation  indi- 
cated is  that  of  general  and  specific  words,  and  it  is  one 
that,  with  every  significant  word  which  a  writer  uses, 
he  must  take  into  account. 

As  to  the  value  and  use  of  general  and  specific 
words,  it  is  evident  that  the  writer  needs  to  have 
knowledge  of  both  kinds  and  to  employ  both.  He  has 
dealings  with  both  sorts  of  ideas,  and  he  cannot  make 
the  words  of  one  class  perform  duty  for  two.  It  is 


GENERAL  AND  SPECIFIC.  123 

here  that  his  great  difficulty  arises.  With  general 
words  he  is  fairly  familiar.  His  temptation  is  to  use 
them  in  places  where  definite  words  are  the  only  ones 
that  will  express  his  meaning  clearly  and  exactly.  In 
the  case  of  words,  then,  the  business  of  the  theme-writer 
is  to  make  an  especial  point  of  employing  specific  lan- 
guage. On  any  subject  which  is  assigned  to  him  'he 
is  assumed  to  have  definite  ideas.  These  ideas,  in  order 
to  produce  on  the  reader  the  impression  of  definiteness, 
must  be  conveyed  in  no  loose-fitting  terms  under  cover 
of  which  half  a  dozen  other  ideas  may  be  smuggled  in  ; 
but  every  idea  must  be  clothed  in  definite  language, 
exactly  adjusted  to  the  character  of  the  '  thought. 
When  a  broad  and  general  notion  is  to  be  expressed, 
it  requires,  of  course,  general  language.  In  precisely 
the  same  fashion,  a  definite  idea  must  always  be  phrased 
definitely.  In  either  case  the  rule  is  the  same,  —  the 
word  must  exactly  fit  the  thought. 

The  especial  value  of  specific  language  lies  in  the  fact 
that  every  definite  word  has  the  power  to  make  in  the 
mind  of  the  reader  a  complete  picture.  The  idea  is  not 
a  vague  form  with  a  shadowy  outline,  but  is  well  de- 
fined, filled  in  with  detail,  and  stands  out  clearly.  The 
difference  in  the  images  created  by  the  words  boat  and 
iron  steam  yacht  illustrates  this.  The  first  word  calls 
up  the  notion  of  an  indefinite  something,  whose  chief 
quality  is  that  it  floats ;  the  second  expression  brings  to 
mind,  in  all  probability,  the  remembrance  of  some  large 
yacht  as  the  reader  once  saw  it ;  and  all  the  circum- 
stances of  its  appearance  then  —  the  color  and  the  lines 


124  WORDS. 

of  the  hull,  the  rake  of  the  masts,  the  glitter  of  the 
brass-work,  the  club  flag  and  the  private  signal  —  come 
back  to  him  and  form  a  picture  complete  and  full  of 
detail.  It  is  plain  enough,  then,  that  the  greater  the 
number  of  definite  words  in  a  theme,  the  more  fully 
and  accurately  will  the  reader  see  the  writer's  ideas. 
The  phrase  a  good  course  in  German  gives  no  notion 
whatever  of  the  special  merits  of  the  course.  The 
actual  facts  that  this  phrase  so  tamely  describes  may 
have  been,  for  example,  that  the  work  was  thorough, 
the  teacher  interesting,  and  the  students  enthusiastic. 
Of  all  these  the  vast  and  vague  word  good  gives  no 
hint.  The  reader  may  infer  these  characteristics,  or 
any  others  that  he  pleases,  or  none  at  all.  The  general 
word  arouses  in  him  no  interest  in  the  work  in  Ger- 
man, because  it  throws  hardly  a  ray  of  light  on  the  sub- 
ject. A  reader,  to  take  an  intelligent  interest  in  the 
theme,  must  see  clearly  and  definitely  and  even  vividly 
the  ideas  that  are  in  the  writer's  mind ;  and  to 
accomplish  this  result,  the  aid  of  specific  words  is 
indispensable. 

The  following  one-page  theme  illustrates  the  way  in 
which  specific  language  calls  up  a  definite  and  vivid 
picture  to  the  eye  :  — 

When  I  was  returning  home  this  evening,  I  noticed  the 
steam  rising  from  a  small  pipe  in  a  little  wooden  shanty 
nestling  close  under  the  protecting  heights  of  a  great  brick 
building.  The  steam  came  out  with  that  whistling  sound 
which  always  makes  me  think  of  peanut  venders,  and  which 
sounds  so  warm  and  grateful  on  these  cold  December  even- 


GENERAL  AND  SPECIFIC.  125 

ings.  True  enough,  here  was  a  tiny  fruit  and  peanut  stand. 
Cosy  and  snug  in  his  little  box,  warmed  by  his  smoky  char- 
coal fire  and  his  dingy  lamp,  the  vender  sat  reading  his 
evening  paper.  He  had  no  care  but  to  attend  to  a  chance 
customer,  no  trouble  but  to  protect  his  stock  from  the  raids 
of  marauding  boys.  I  envied  him  in  his  happiness.  Here 
am  I,  an  atom  in  this  student  world,  thrown  by  fate  with 
thousands  unknown  to  me,  and  I  equally  unknown  to  them ; 
struggling  with  them  one  day  and  away  from  them  the  next. 
But  with  the  vender  it  is  different ;  he  resembles  more  the 
molecule,  he  can  exist  by  himself,  he  is  dependent  on  no  one, 
he  is  free. 

The  scene  here  described  is  familiar  enough,  but  it  is 
the  enumeration  of  details  rather  than  the  familiarity 
of  the  subject  that  makes  the  reader  see  the  picture  so 
vividly.  Words  such  as  shanty,  nestling,  cosy  and  snug 
in  his  little  box,  dingy  lamp,  and  others  make  the  scene 
real.  Without  them  the  theme  would  be  vague,  and  there 
would  be  nothing  to  give  point  to  the  contrast  in  the 
last  lines.  It  is  well  to  notice,  too,  that  the  writer  has 
not  allowed  himself  to  employ  a  general  expression  in 
the  description  until  he  has  first  presented  a  picture 
filled  with  concrete,  specific  details.  Then  he  sums  up 
in  general  language :  /  envied  him  in  his  happiness. 
The  phrase  here,  though  general,  is  not  vague;  for  the 
writer  has  just  taken  pains  to  show  what  this  happiness 
is.  Nowhere  has  he  failed  to  select  the  word  that  happily 
suggests  some  idea  needed  to  fill  out  the  picture.  As 
a  result,  the  description  makes  one  see  the  objects  de- 
scribed, it  makes  one  see  them  in  clear  and  sharp  outline  ; 
and  all  this  it  does  purely  by  means  of  definite  language. 


126  WORDS. 

The  use  of  example  and  illustration  is  one  of  the  best 
ways  of  bringing  specific  words  into  a  theme.  Then  the 
language  is  of  necessity  definite,  being  applicable  to  only 
one  concrete  case ;  and  so  the  example,  if  in  the  first 
place  it  is  a  good  one,  cannot  help  giving  the  reader  at 
least  one  clear  view  of  the  subject.  The  man  who  wrote 
about  his  "  good  course  in  German "  would  instantly 
become  specific,  and  so  arouse  his  readers  to  attention, 
the  moment  that  he  introduced  an  incident  or  cited 
an  example  which  showed  the  thoroughness  of  the 
work,  or  the  interesting  methods  of  the  teacher,  or  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  class.  So  a  student,  no  matter  on 
what  subject  he  is  writing,  will  find  that  he  is  obliged 
to  make  use  of  specific  language  whenever  he  introduces 
an  illustration. 

A  man's  thinking,  if  it  is  to  appear  clear  and  exact, 
must  be  expressed  in  clear  and  exact  language.  The 
word  must  fit  the  thought.  As  the  witness  is  sworn  to 
tell  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the 
truth,  so  the  writer  is  bound  to  make  each  word  express 
his  meaning,  his  whole  meaning,  and  nothing  but  his 
meaning.  The  ways  in  which  he  may  fail  to  do  this  are 
various.  Too  often  in  the  case  of  young  theme-writers 
the  word  or  phrase  that  is  taken  to  express  an  idea  does 
not  do  this  because  it  is  hackneyed.  It  is  some  well- 
worn  expression  which  has  done  service  again  and  again 
in  the  work  of  untrained  newspaper  writers  and  careless 
speakers.  It  serves  as  a  convenient  means  of  conveying 
an  idea  cheaply  and  quickly,  and  saves  those  persons 
the  trouble  of  finding  the  word  which  expresses  exactly 


GENERAL  AND   SPECIFIC.  127 

what  they  mean.  Such  expressions  may  have  had  a 
sharp  and  definite  meaning  in  the  beginning,  but  con- 
stant use  of  them  for  all  sorts  of  purposes  has  worn 
away  their  freshness  and  exactness.  Their  presence 
consequently  is  always  the  mark  of  laziness  or  igno- 
rance in  writing.  The  number  of  these  phrases  is  large, 
and  as  they  vaguely  indicate  the  nature  of  an  idea,  and 
at  the  same  time  come  readily  to  hand,  they  offer  an 
easy  temptation  to  writers  of  both  the  above  classes. 
The  lazy  writer  uses  them  because  it  is  too  much  work 
to  think  of  the  proper  word  ;  the  ignorant  writer  because 
he  does  not  know  how  far  short  they  come  of  express- 
ing his  thoughts.  Further,  the  practice  of  employing 
these  worn-out  phrases  damages  not  only  a  man's  style, 
but  also  his  powers  of  thinking.  The  use  of  vaguek 
means  of  expression  reacts  on  his  brain,  and  tends  to|] 
produce  vagueness  of  thought.  With  such  a  vocabu- 
lary, clear  and  exact  thinking  is  out  of  the  question. 

Of  these  time-worn  expressions  the  number,  as  has 
been  said,  is  large.  The  examples  in  the  following  list 
are  all  familiar  both  to  eye  and  to  ear ;  and  the  famili- 
arity of  these  vague  and  meaningless  terms  is  what  has 
bred  the  contempt  in  which  they  are  held :  — 

Every  walk  of  life.  Praiseworthy  innovation. 

Victorious  conflicts.  Duplicate  the  performance. 

Misguided  youths.  Fraught  with  consequences. 

Faded  into  oblivion.  Accede  to  demands. 

Returns  that  accrue.  Retrace  his  steps. 
Blessed  with  liberal  endow-    Pale  as  death, 
inents. 


128  WORDS. 

Consign  to  earth.  A  feature  of  the  evening. 

Assembled  multitudes.  Obtain  the  best  results. 

The  following  theme  is  curious  for  its  mixture  of  such 
hackneyed  terms  with  well-selected,  appropriate,  definite 
words :  — 

The  approach  of  cold  weather  has  already  set  the  youth 
to  thinking  of  skates  and  hockey,  and  visions  of  delightful 
hours  spent  in  skimming  over  the  glassy  surface  have  been 
realized  this  week.  Even  yesterday  morning,  while  the  ice 
was  in  a  very  unsafe  state,  the  small  omnipresent  urchin 
could  be  seen  cautiously  navigating  the  sounds  and  inlets 
of  the  Public  Garden  pond.  Last  night's  cold  wave  strength- 
ened the  ice  to  such  an  extent  that  the  urchins  were  not 
alone  in  their  sport  to-day.  Hundreds  of  lithe  forms  could 
be  seen  skimming  in  and  out,  while  other  forms  less  lithe  de- 
scribed circles,  curves,  and  tangents  that  would  have  created 
envy  in  the  breast  of  a  drawing  instructor.  Nevertheless, 
all  were  jolly,  and  differences  of  class,  creeds,  and  national- 
ity seemed  entirely  obliterated ;  the  old-fashioned  rocker 
kept  time  with  the  click  of  the  fine  "  nickel  plate,"  and  the 
rough  gnarled  hockey  battled  with  the  "  selected  ash." 

Here  most  of  the  language  is  tame  and  tawdry,  while 
the  last  sentence  is  specific  and  vivid,  and  therefore 
interesting.  The  contrast  is  sufficiently  sharp  to  bring 
out  all  the  faults  of  the  former  kind  of  words  and  all 
the  advantages  of  the  latter  kind. 

The  vulgarity  of  this  shoddy  vocabulary  it  is  the  duty 
of  every  writer  to  avoid.  The  escape  comes  in  his  liv- 
ing up  to  the  principle  that  the  word  and  the  thought 
must  fit.  Not  the  first  shop-worn  phrase  that  comes  to 


GENERAL  AND   SPECIFIC.  129 

hand,  but  the  one  expression  which  in  this  especial  case 
properly  clothes  the  idea,  the  word  which  gives  the 
writer's  meaning,  his  whole  meaning,  and  nothing  but 
his  meaning,  —  that  is  the  word  which  he  must  feel 
it  his  duty  to  find.  Such  patient  and  constant  prac- 
tice is  not  without  effect.  The  quest  for  the  right 
word  becomes  to  him  a  matter  of  greater  and  greater 
importance ;  he  refuses  to  be  satisfied  with  the  easy  and 
self-evident  phrase,  because  it  does  not  tell  the  truth 
about  his  idea.  Finally  the  reward  comes  in  his  fuller 
power  to  adapt  the  word  fitly  to  the  thought. 

When  the  word  is  thus  fitted  to  the  thought,  the  effect 
on  the  reader  is  striking.  Having  once  recognized  this 
fitness,  he  begins  to  think  of  the  connection  between 
the  word  and  the  idea  as  a  thing  that  is,  in  a  way,  inevi- 
table. He  cannot  now  imagine  any  other  word  that 
could  possibly  do  the  service  so  well  as  this  one  does, 
and  he  would  as  soon  offer  to  substitute  another  expres- 

Ision  as  he  would  to  change  a  measure  of  one  of  Bee- 
thoven's symphonies.  It  is  this  pj^lity_pf  inevitable- 1 
ness  that  lifts  a  piece  of  writing  into  the  realm  of  lit" 
erature.  In  every  great  work  of  literature  this  quality 
is  not  merely  apparent,  but  all-pervading ;  and  perhaps 
nowhere  is  this  more  notably  true  than  in  Lincoln's 
Gettysburg  Address.  A  study  of  the  words  in  this 
speech  will  show  that  every  one  of  them  fits  into  its 
proper  place,  and  that  any  substitution  or  rearrange- 
ment is  hardly  conceivable. 


130  WOBDS. 


LINCOLN'S  GETTYSBURG  ADDRESS. 

Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought  forth 
upon  this  continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in  liberty,  and 
dedicated  to  the  proposition  that  all  men  are  created  equal. 
Now  we  are  engaged  in  a  great  civil  war,  testing  whether 
that  nation,  or  any  nation  so  conceived  and  so  dedicated, 
can  long  endure.  We  are  met  on  a  great  battle-field  of  that 
war.  We  have  come  to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field  as  a 
final  resting-place  for  those  who  here  gave  their  lives  that 
that  nation  might  live.  It  is  altogether  fitting  and  proper 
that  we  should  do  this.  But  in  a  larger  sense  we  cannot 
dedicate,  we  cannot  consecrate,  we  cannot  hallow  this 
ground.  The  brave  men,  living  and  dead,  who  struggled 
here,  have  consecrated  it  far  above  our  power  to  add  or 
detract.  The  world  will  little  note,  nor  long  remember, 
what  we  say  here,  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did 
here.  It  is  for  us,  the  living,  rather  to  be  dedicated  here 
to  the  unfinished  work  which  they  who  fought  here  have 
thus  far  so  nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here 
dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  us,  that  from 
these  honored  dead  we  take  increased  devotion  to  that  cause 
for  which  they  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion ;  that 
we  here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died 
in  vain  ;  that  this  nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth 
of  freedom,  and  that  government  of  the  people,  by  the  peo- 
ple, and  for  the  people,  shall  not  perish  from  the  earth. 


In  the  first  sentence  the  words  conceived  and  dedicated 
are -worth  noting.  That  they  are  chosen  with  evi- 
dent design  is  plain  from  the  fact  that  they  are  re- 
peated in  the  next  sentence.  The  three  verbs  in  the 
sixth  sentence  are  selected  to  produce  the  effect  of 


GENERAL  AND  SPECIFIC.  131 

climax.  Dedicate  stands  first,  as  it  has  been  used  in 
the  preceding  sentence.  Consecrate,  which  follows  it, 
expresses  a  greater  degree  of  reverence  and  sanctity 
in  the  ceremonial,  arid  hallow  is,  from  its  association 
with  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  most  profoundly  reverent 
word  of  the  three.  Again,  the  phrases  used  in  refer- 
ring to  the,  soldiers  who  fought  at  Gettysburg  are  con- 
stantly varied,  and  for  every  change  there  is  a  reason. 
Those  who  here  gave  their  lives  that  that  nation  might  live 

—  the  brave  men,  living  and  dead,  who  struggled  here  — 
what  they  did  here  —  they  who  fought  here  —  these  hon- 
ored dead  —  they  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion 

—  these   dead  —  in  each  phrase  some  special  point  is 
brought  out  that  is  needed  as  part  of  the  sentence  to 
which  it  belongs.     No  interchange  of  phrases  is  possi- 
ble ;  to  say  The  world  will  little  note,  nor  long  remember, 
what  we  say  here,  but  it  can  never  forget  those  who  here 
gave  their  lives  that  the  nation  might  live,  or  the  unfin- 
ished work  these  honored  dead  have  thus  far  so  nobly 
advanced,  not  only  weakens  the  sense,  but  even  is  like 
sacrilege.     Further,  in  the  last  sentence  the  word  highly 
uplifts  the  thought  in  a  way  that  no  other  adverb  in 
the  English  language  possibly  could.     A  moment's  con- 
sideration of  the  other  words  that  conceivably  might 
stand  here  shows  that  by  comparison  with  highly  they  are 
all  fatally  unfit.    Finally,  the  three  phrases  introduced  by 
the  prepositions  of,  by,  and  for  express  so  completely  and 
so  concisely  the    whole  theory  of   democratic  govern- 
ment, that  ever  since  these  words  were  first  spoken  at 
Gettysburg  they  have  been  the  instinctive  and  inevita- 


132  WORDS. 

ble  utterance  of  every  person  wishing  to  characterize 
democracy.  Thus  analyzed,  this  speech,  undoubtedly 
the  greatest  short  speech  of  modern  times,  is  seen  to 
be  in  its  whole  character  and  effect  inevitable  ;  and 
this  quality  here,  as  in  all  writing,  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  words  are  exactly  fitted  to  the  thoughts. 

The  word  represents  the  lowest  unit  in  the  table  of 
which  the  higher  units  are  the  sentence,  the  paragraph, 
and  the  whole  composition.  With  only  a  small  pro- 
portion of  the  words  in  the  language  can  any  person 
be  familiar;  but  of  the  words  that  he  does  employ, 
he  must  know  ffrft  p^aci^mft^i-ig^Tij^jiTSft.  The  writer 
needs  to  realize  the  distinction  between  general  and 
specific  words,  and  to  be  especially  careful  to  make  his 
idej^definite  in  expression  by  means  of  specific,  words. 
The  great  value  of  such  words  consistsJn  the  fact  that 
each  one  of  them  calls,  up  ROTTIP. 


of  the  idea  which  it  stands  for.  The  use  of 
and  illustration  always  brings  j^ejoif[c_  words  into  a 
theme.  Certain  expressions  are  to  be  avoided  because 
they  are  hackneyed  and  have  only  a  vague  meaning. 
The  parjjniaint  thing  is  that  the  word  shall  fit  the 
thought.  It  is  only  by  this  means  that  the  reader  is 
able  to  get  the  exact  idea  of  the  writer.  When  this 
adaptation  of  word  to  thought  is  as  nearly  as  possible 
perfect,  the  association  of  the  two  then  seems  inevita- 
ble, and  it  is  impossible  to  represent  that  idea  by  any 
other  language.  This  quality  of  inevitableness  is  essen- 
tial in  every  work  that  is  called  literature,  and,  wherever 
it  is  found,  its  presence  is  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that 
there  is  a  complete  union  between  word  and  thought. 


CONCLUSIONS. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

EVERY  man  when  he  sits  down  to  write  must  have  an 
object.  He  is  in  possession  of  a  certain  idea,  and  his 
purpose  is  to  deliver  it  into  the  hands  of  the  reader. 
He  cannot  produce  anything  which  really  deserves  con- 
sideration as  a  piece  of  writing,  if  in  the  first  place  he 
has  nothing  to  say,  and  if  in  the  second  place  he  does 
not  make  some  effort  to  present  his  idea  in  such  a  way 
that  it  shall  appeal  to  the  person  to  whom  he  is  address- 
ing it.  An  idea  and  a  reader  are  thus  the  two  elements 
of  the  writer's  task,  and  his  object  is,  chemically 
speaking,  to  unite  them.  Without  both  these  elements 
he  can  have  no  real  object,  and  consequently  no  reason 
for  writing  at  all. 

While  a  writer  must  always  have  an  object,  the 
character  of  the  object  may  vary  greatly.  Ideas  are 
of  many  different  sorts ;  so  are  readers,  so  are  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  the  readers  are  addressed. 
Along  with  the  variety  of  objects  thus  created,  there 
must,  of  course,  be  great  differences  in  the  kinds  of  writ- 
ing used.  The  means  naturally  adapt  themselves  to 
the  end;  and  thus  all  the  numerous  classes  of  writing 
have  arisen.  For  the  man  who  adopts  literature  as  a 
profession,  familiarity  with  the  technique  of  all  these 
kinds  is  a  part  of  his  equipment.  To  the  person  who 

135 


136  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  COMPOSITION. 

is  not  a  professional  writer,  such  acquaintance  is  unneces- 
sary. In  one  kind  of  writing,  however,  —  in  that  which 
is  first  of  all  a  straightforward  and  orderly  presentation 
of  ideas,  —  no  man  can  afford  not  to  be  competent. 
Ability  to  write,  as  a  means  of  communicating  with 
clearness  and  accuracy  ideas  that  all  men  employ  in 
the  every-day  affairs  of  life,  is  demanded  of  every  man. 
Here  the  object  of  the  writer  is  to  convey  a  given 
thought  as  completely  and  exactly  as  possible.  It  is  a 
question  of  its  transmission  from  one  intellect  to  an- 
other, and  the  writer's  aim  is  to  make  that  thought 
appear  and  appeal  to  the  reader's  understanding  pre- 
cisely as  it  does  to  his  own.  In  this  kind  of  writing 
the  three  principles  of  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis 
are  indispensable.  They  represent,  as  was  said  in  the 
beginning,  broad  and  general  principles,  and  are  essen- 
tial to  all  the  undertakings  of  life.  Writing  which  has 
for  its  object  the  clear  and  orderly  presentation  of 
ideas  is  closely  allied  to  the  regular  work  of  every  man 
who  uses  his  brains,  and  is,  moreover,  likely  at  any 
time  to  be  demanded  of  him.  A  reasonable  ability  in 
this  sort  of  composition  is  therefore  required  of  every 
educated  man. 

The  object  of  this  kind  of  writing  is  to  make  the 
reader  inevitably  understand.  In  order  to  accomplish 
this,  it  is  necessary  for  the  writer  to  know  beforehand 
approximately  how  much  knowledge  on  the  reader's 
part  he  is  safe  in  taking  for  granted.  Any  explanation 
of  an  idea  needs  always  to  be  graded  to  the  intelligence 
of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed.  When  a  man  is 


CONCL  USIONS.  137 

explaining  to  a  child  the  cause  of  dew,  he  naturally 
gives  an  account  of  the  phenomenon  different  from  that 
with  which  he  would  satisfy  the  questions  of  a  man  of 
his  own  age.  He  chooses  his  language,  emphasizes  one 
aspect  of  the  matter,  omits  to  mention  another,  and 
in  general  adjusts  his  explanation  so  that  it  will  come 
as  nearly  as  possible  within  the  range  of  what  a  child 
can  understand.  He  puts  himself  in  touch  with  the 
person  to  whom  he  is  talking.  This  the  writer  must 
try  to  do.  He  must  roughly  estimate  what  his  readers 
may  be  supposed  to  know.  By  gauging  their  mental 
capacity  and  their  amount  of  knowledge  and  experi- 
ence, he  gets  a  fair  notion  of  what  he  may  take  for 
granted.  He  soon  comes  to  think  of  this  degree  of 
intelligence  not  as  an  abstract  thing  but  as  being  em- 
bodied in  a  concrete  form.  The  reader  for  whom  he 
gets  in  the  habit  of  writing  stands  as  the  personification 
of  it, — a  person  of  general  education,  but  nothing  more; 
of  some  experience  of  life,  but  none  too  wide  ;  of  moder- 
ate mental  ability,  but  nothing  remarkable ;  solid,  but 
not  brilliant ;  willing  to  be  interested,  but  not  quick  to 
apprehend,  —  in  short,  a  composite  individuality  best 
represented  by  the  phrase  "the  average  man."  The 
writer  thus  has  a  general  standard  by  which  he  may 
examine  his  work  and  determine  with  what  success 
he  has  accomplished  his  object  of  making  the  reader 
understand  clearly  and  completely. 

All  these  considerations  imply  that  the  student  is 
rapidly  outgrowing  class-room  work,  and  the  writing 
of  what  his  instructor  has  called  themes,  or  essays,  or 


138  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  COMPOSITION. 

compositions.  His  written  work,  along  with  everything 
else  that  he  does,  begins  to  be  on  a  larger  scale ;  ab- 
stracts, reports,  and  theses  occupy  him.  No  longer  is  it 
possible  for  him  to  do  his  writing  in  a  spirit  of  per- 
functoriness.  A  certain  idea  is  in  his  mind.  He  must, 
at  all  hazards,  make  his  readers  see  that  idea  as  clearly 
and  completely  as  he  himself  sees  it.  That  is  his  object. 
It  compels  him  on,  and  stimulates  him  to  use  every  care 
in  selecting,  arranging,  proportioning,  and  wording  his 
thoughts  that  will  help  to  put  them  into  the  possession 
of,  his  readers.  The  principles  of  Unity,  Coherence,  and 
Emphasis  serve  him  now  as  never  before ;  he  sees  that 
they  are  indeed  fundamental.  Further,  his  growing 
acquaintance  with  the  ways  and  manners  of  his  fellow- 
men,  as  he  meets  them  in  the  world  at  large,  awakens 
him  to  the  supreme  importance  of  presenting  his  thoughts 
so  that  they  will  appeal  to  readers.  On  every  side  his 
work  of  writing  broadens  him  ;  and  finally  he  comes 
to  consider  his  ability  to  put  a  thing  clearly  and  ade- 
quately as  an  indispensable  instrument  of  his  business. 
So  English  Composition  is  a  serious  thing  not  only 
in  the  class-room,  but  also  in  life.  If  a  man  is  to  find 
his  life  good  for  profit  and  for  pleasure,  it  is  because  he 
keeps  himself  in  touch  with  his  fellow-men,  and  keeps 
them  in  touch  with  him.  The  more  numerous  and 
diversified  are  his  points  of  contact  with  the  rest  of  the 
world,  the  broader  and  more  useful  and  altogether  hap- 
pier will  his  life  be.  The  sphere  of  his  immediate  and 
daily  influence,  however,  is  small.  His  hands  to  do 
and  his  voice  to  speak,  cannot  extend  far.  It  is  only  in 


CONCLUSIONS.  139 

proportion  as  he  is  able  to  keep  up  correspondence  with 
friends  at  a  distance,  to  plan  business  operations  with 
associates  in  other  cities,  to  prepare  a  report  which  shall 
convince  persons  of  his  knowledge  of  the  special  subject 
with  which  it  deals,  to  address  a  meeting  where  his 
experience  or  his  enthusiasm  will  be  a  strong  influence, 
to  write  a  magazine  article  setting  forth  the  importance 
to  the  world  of  some  new  scientific  discovery  or  inven- 
tion, to  put  into  permanent  form  the  truth  about  any 
matter  which  concerns  the  human  race,  —  it  is,  in  short, 
only  in  proportion  as  he  is  able  to  plan  and  organize  his 
thoughts  and  phrase  them  in  clear  and  adequate  lan- 
guage that  it  is  possible  for  him  to  enlarge  his  life  most 
generously.  He  may  bid  farewell  to  this  book,  but  the 
opportunities  to  practise  its  teachings  will  corne  to  him 
all  the  days  of  his  life. 


APPENDIX. 


GOOD  USE. 

GOOD  use,  as  the  term  is  employed  in  English  Composi- 
tion, means  the  practice  of  reputable  writers  of  national 
reputation  at  the  present  time.  Good  use  as  a  standard 
of  authority  determines  (1)  in  the  case  of  words,  what  words 
belong  and  what  words  do  not  belong,  for  the  purposes  of 
English  Composition,  to  the  language,  and  the  exact  mean- 
ing of  each  word ;  and  (2)  in  the  case  of  sentences,  matters 
of  grammar  and  punctuation. 

1.   WORDS. 

A  word  which  is  not  in  national,  reputable,  and  present 
use  is  called  a  Barbarism. 

A  word  which  is  used  in  a  sense  not  given  to  it  by  na- 
tional, reputable,  and  present  use  is  called  an  Impropriety. 

Barbarisms.  —  Words  that  are  to  be  avoided  because  they 
do  not  fulfil  one  or  all  of  the  requirements  of  good  use  are 

Foreign  words  :  as,  abattoir,  nee. 
Obsolete  words  :  as,  quoth,  peradventure. 
New  words :  as,  poloist,  laborite. 
Slang:  as,  nit,  swipe,  cuss. 
Technical  words :  as,  gearing,  reagent. 
Localisms:  as,  co-ed,  gym,  exam,  prof. 

Improprieties.  —  The  following  are  examples  of  words 
that,  although  belonging  to  the  language  and  having  a  well- 

141 


142  APPENDIX. 

defined  meaning  of  their  own,  are  frequently  employed  with 
meanings  not  recognized/  by  good  use :  — 

.  Aggravate  (used  for  annoy  or  irritate). 

Alternative  (used  where  more  than  two  things  are  referred  to). 
Among  (used  for  between). 
Apt  (used  for  likely  or  liable). 
Between  (used  for  among). 
Factor  (used  for  part). 

Feature  (used  for  circumstance  or  characteristic). 
Gentleman  (used  for  man). 
Individual  (used  for  person). 
Lady  (used  for  woman). 
Liable  (used  for  likely). 
Most  (used  for  almost). 
Partake  (used  for  eat). 
Party  (used  for  person). 

Quite  (to  be  used  only  as  equivalent  to  completely  or  entirely). 
Stop  (used  for  stay). 

Idiom  is  the  name  given  to  any  form  of  expression  which 
is  peculiar  to  our  language.  An  idiom  cannot  be  translated 
into  another  language  word  for  word.  The  words  that 
make  up  an  idiom  have,  when  thus  taken  together,  a  special 
meaning  which  good  use  has  established  entirely  indepen- 
dent of  the  sense  that  the  words  might  logically  and  gram- 
matically be  expected  to  have.  To  express  this  idea  these 
words  must  always  be  used. 

The  use  of  special  prepositions  with  certain  words  is  one 
of  the  most  important  forms' of  English  idiom.  The  follow- 
ing list l  shows  what  prepositions  are  required  by  good  use 
to  go  with  certain  words  :  — 

Absolve  from.  Agree  to  (a  proposal). 

Accord  with.  Bestow  upon. 

Acquit  of.  Change  for  (a  thing). 

Agree  with  (a  person).  Change  with  (a  person). 

1  From  Meiklejohn's  "The  English  Language." 


APPENDIX.  143 

Confer  on  (=  give  to).  Disappointed  of  (what  we  cannot 

Confer  with  (=  talk  with).  get). 

Confide  in  (=  trust  in).  Disappointed  in  (what  we  have). 

Confide  to  (=  intrust  to).  Dissent  from. 

Conform  to.  Glad  at,  or  of. 

Convenient  to  (a  person).  Involve  in. 

Convenient  for  (a  purpose).  Need  of. 

Conversant  with.  Part  from  (a  person). 

Correspond  to  (a  thing).  Part  with  (a  thing). 

Correspond  with  (a  person).  Profit  by. 

Dependent  on  (but  independent      Reconcile  to  (a  person). 

of).  Reconcile  with  (a  statement). 

Derogatory  to.  Taste  of  (food). 
Differ  from  (a  fact  or  opinion).          Taste  for  (art). 

Differ  with  (a  person).  Thirst  for,  or  after. 
Different  from. 

2.   SENTENCES. 

Grammar.  —  Good  use  requires  the  observance  of  the 
rules  of  English  Grammar.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
most  common  grammatical  errors  :  — 

1.  Use  of  the  plural  for  the  singular  of  Greek  or  Latin  words :  as, 
He  gave  me  a  memoranda  (for  memorandum)  of  his  expenses  ;   This 
phenomena  (for  phenomenon)  has  never  been  noticed  before. 

2.  Wrong  use  of  the  possessive  case :  as,  The  library's  steps,  for 
The  steps  of  the  library. 

3.  Use  of  the  wrong  case  of  a  pronoun :  as,  Who  shall  I  give  this  to  ? 

4.  Errors  in  agreement  as  to  number  between  noun  and  verb,  or 
noun  and  pronoun :  as,  When  the  committee  had  made  their  report, 
it  was  discharged. 

6.  Use  of  but  what  for  but  or  but  that :  as,  I  do  not  see  but  what 
his  course  is  right. 

6.  Use  of  the  cleft  infinitive :  as,  To  satisfactorily  settle  it. 

7.  Errors  in  the  sequence  of  tenses :  as,  Nobody  could  do  this  if 
we  cannot. 

8.  The  confounding  of  lie  (intransitive)  with  lay  (transitive).    The 
principal  parts  of  the  first  verb  are  lie,  lay,  lain  ;  of  the  second  verb, 
lay,  laid,  laid. 

9.  The  confounding  of  sit  (intransitive)  with  set  (transitive).    The 


144  APPENDIX. 

principal  parts  of  the  first  verb  are  sit,  sat,  sat;  of  the  second  verb, 
set,  set,  set. 

10.  The  misuse  of  shall  and  will. 

The  following  rules  and  examples  bring  out  the  distinc- 
tions 1  in  the  use  of  shall  and  will :  — 

I.  a.  To  indicate  the  future  tense  in  statements  the  proper  forms 
are :  — 

Sing.  Plu. 

I  shall  we  shall 

you  will  you  will 

he  will  they  will 

EXAMPLES.  —  I  shall  go  down  town  this  afternoon.  You  will  find 
me  at  home  at  five.  They  will  dine  with  us. 

In  these  examples  the  words  shall  and  will  indicate  nothing  but 
simple  futurity. 

b.  To  express  intention,  promise,  or  command  on  the  part  of  the 
speaker  in  statements,  the  proper  forms  are  :  — 

Sing.  Plu.   ' 

I  will  we  will 

you  shall  you  shall 

he  shall  they  shall 

EXAMPLES.  —  I  will  never  do  it  again.  You  shall  not  contradict 
me.  He  shall  find  that  I  will  not  allow  my  son  to  be  treated  thus. 
If  I  have  my  way,  their  hopes  shall  not  be  disappointed. 

In  these  examples  the  words  shall  and  will  indicate  that  the 
speaker  is  expressing  some  intention,  promise,  or  command. 

11.  a.  In  questions  of  the  first  person,  shall  is  the  only  form 
allowable. 

EXAMPLES.  —  What  shall  I  do  ?  Shall  we  be  able  to  catch  the 
train  ? 

b.  In  questions  of  the  second  and  third  person,  shall  or  will  is  used 
according  as  it  may  be  expected  in  the  answer. 

EXAMPLES.  —  Will  you  go  to  walk  with  me  ?    I  will.     Shall  they 

1  The  distinction  between  would  and  should  corresponds  in  the  main 
to  that  between  will  and  shall. 


APPENDIX.  145 

be  excused  from  doing  this  work  ?    They  shall  not  be  excused.     Shall 
you  be  at  the  club  this  evening  ?    I  shall. 

In  each  case  here  the  person  who  asks  the  questions  decides  which 
of  the  two  words  to  use  by  considering  which  word  will  be  used  in  the 
answer.  He  then  employs  that  word  in  his  question. 

III.  When  a  statement  is  put  into  indirect  discourse  (that  is,  when 
it  is  made  to  follow  "  He  says  that,"  or  some  similar  expression),  and 
when,  at  the  same  time,  the  subject  of  the  dependent  and  of  the  inde- 
pendent clauses  is  the  same,  although  the  person  of  the  pronoun  is 
changed  from  the  first  to  the  third,  no  change  is  made  in  the  auxiliary 
shall  or  will. 

EXAMPLES.  —  He  says  that  he  will  take  dinner  with  us.  (I  will 
take  dinner  with  you.)  He  told  me  that  he  should  not  be  able  to  go 
to  the  theatre  to-night.  (I  shall  not  be  able  to  go  to  the  theatre  to- 
night.) He  writes  that  he  shall  probably  come  on  Tuesday.  (I  shall 
probably  come  on  Tuesday.)  He  promises  that  he  will  not  make 
another  such  foolish  attempt.  (I  will  not  make  another  such  foolish 
attempt.) 

Punctuation.  —  The  following  rules  and  examples  indicate 
the  practice  in  punctuation  which  is  sanctioned  by  good 
use:  — 

GENERAL  RULE.  — The  function  of  the  comma,  the  semicolon,  the 
colon,  and  the  dash  is  to  help  the  reader  to  understand  the  construc- 
tion of  the  sentence,  and  to  see  at  a  glance  the  relation  of  the  different 
parts  to  each  other.  No  one  of  these  marks  of  punctuation  is  to  be 
used,  unless  it  plainly  serves  this  purpose.  Special  rules  must  always 
be  corrected  by  this  general  rule. 

THE  COMMA.  —  The  comma  is  used  (1)  to  separate  words,  phrases, 
and  clauses  in  a  series ;  and  (2)  to  mark  the  beginning  and  the  end 
of  certain  subordinate  or  explanatory  expressions  (words,  phrases,  or 
clauses).  The  expressions  thus  set  off  are  always  more  or  less  paren- 
thetical in  nature,  and  easily  detachable  from  the  sentence.  When 
the  expressions  are  so  closely  connected  that  they  seem  an  integral 
part  of  the  logical  structure,  no  commas  are  used. 

,      1  a.   The  vast,  gloomy,  and  in-  1  a.   Adjectives    in    a    series, 

'"hospitable  city  lay  before  him.  separated  by  commas. 


146 


APPENDIX. 


1  &.  He  is  distasteful  to  me  in 
appearance,  in  manners,  and  in 
morals. 

Ic.  I  should  write  better 
themes  if  my  mind  were  quicker, 
if  I  had  had  longer  training,  and 
if  I  had  the  faculty  of  observation. 

1  d.   I  put  on  my  hat,  opened 
the  door,  and  went  out. 

2  a.   He  was  not,  however,  on 
the  best  terms  with  me. 

26.  These,  then,  were  my 
hopes. 

2  c.  I  assure  you,  my  dear  fel- 
low, that  I  could  not  help  it. 

2d.  He  telephoned  for  Dr. 
Bacon,  the  best  physician  in 
town,  to  come  at  once. 

2  e.  That  man,  who  once  had 
my  highest  regard,  has  turned 
out  a  forger. 

2/.  No  man  who  has  ever  been 
imprisoned  can  have  my  confi- 
dence. 

2g.  A  man  must  be  sure, 
whenever  he  makes  a  statement, 
that  the  facts  are  right. 

2  h.  Whenever  a  man  makes  a 
statement,  he  must  be  sure  that 
his  facts  are  right. 

2  i.  I  advised  him  not  to  do  it, 
because  it  would  injure  his  repu- 
tation. 


1  &.    Phrases  in  a  series,  sepa- 
rated by  commas. 

1  c.    Clauses  in  a  series,  sepa- 
rated by  commas. 


1  d.   Independent  clauses  in  a 
series,  separated  by  commas. 

2  a,  2  6.   A  single  word  set  off 
by  commas. 


2  c.  Words  of  address,  set  off 
by  commas. 

2d.  Phrase  in  apposition,  set 
off  by  commas. 

2  e.  Relative  clause  set  off  by 
commas,  because  it  is  in  the  na- 
ture of  a  parenthesis  (non-restric- 
tive clause). 

2/.  Relative  clause  not  set  off 
by  commas,  because  an  integral 
part  of  the  sentence  (restrictive 
clause). 

2  g.  Dependent  clause,  set  off 
by  commas. 

2  h.  Dependent  clause  at  be- 
ginning of  sentence,  and  so  only 
one  comma  needed. 

2i.  Dependent  clause  at  end 
of  sentence,  and  so  only  one 
comma  needed. 


THE  SEMICOLON.  — The  semicolon  is  used  (1)  when  the  parts  of  a 
sentence  are  but  slightly  connected,  or  when  they  are  set  off  against 
each  other ;  and  (2)  in  long  sentences  where  separation  between 
clauses  that  contain  commas  must  be  indicated. 


APPENDIX. 


147 


1  a.  A  lawyer  must  have 
friends ;  he  knew  scarcely  any 
one.  A  lawyer  must  be  ready  to 
speak  to  any  and  every  body  ;  he 
was  extremely  bashful. 

1  6.  I  spent  the  whole  after- 
noon in  the  library,  and  con- 
sulted at  least  twenty  books ;  but 
I  could  not  find  the  reference 
that  I  desired. 

2.  The  first  word  calls  up  the 
notion  of  an  indefinite  something, 
whose  chief  quality  is  that  it 
floats ;  the  second  expression 
brings  to  mind,  in  all  probability, 
the  remembrance  of  some  large 
yacht  as  the  reader  once  saw  it ; 
and  all  the  circumstances  of  its 
appearance  then  —  the  color  and 
the  lines  of  the  hull,  the  rake  of 
the  masts,  the  glitter  of  the  brass- 
work,  the  club  flag,  and  the  pri- 
vate signal  —  come  back  to  him 
and  form  a  picture  complete  and 
full  of  detail. 


THE  COLON.  —  The  colon  is  used  to  indicate  that  a  formal  state- 
ment of  particulars  is  to  follow. 


1  a.  Semicolons  used  because 
there  is  a  more  distinct  separation 
of  ideas  than  a  comma  would  in- 
dicate. 

1  b.  Semicolon  used  to  show 
that  the  last  clause  is  set  off 
against  the  first  two  clauses. 


2.  Semicolons  used  because 
the  clauses  that  they  separate 
contain  commas,  and  because  a 
different  mark  is  thus  needed  to 
indicate  the  larger  divisions  of 
the  sentence. 


la,  16.  Colons  used  in  these 
two  sentences,  because  in  each 
case  there  is  a  specification  of 
particulars. 


1  a.  His  writings  may  be  put 
into  three  classes  ;  essays,  novels, 
and  poems. 

1  b.  The  faults  that  ruined 
their  plan  were:  first,  lack  of 
care  in  selecting  a  location  ;  and, 
second,  irresponsible  agents. 


THE  DASH.  —The  dash  is  used  (1)  to  mark  the  beginning  and  the 
end  of  any  especially  abrupt  or  lengthy  interruption  of  the  construc- 
tion ;  and  (2)  to  introduce  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  an  expression  that 
is  particularly  significant,  or  that  summarizes  the  sentence. 


148 


APPENDIX. 


1.  The  artless  use  of  the  word 
add  is  direct  evidence  against  the 
writer  that  his  plan  of  propor- 
tions —  if  he  ever  had  any  —  has 
gone  completely  out  of  his  head. 

2.  An  examination  of  the  sub- 
stance of    these    so-called  para- 
graphs   shows    that    what    the 
writer  has  said  in  them  is  in  fact 
all  about  one  subject,  —  the  ob- 
jections that   are   made   to   the 
lecture  system. 


1.  Dashes  indicate  a  violent 
interruption.  See  also  above, 
No.  2  under  semicolon. 


2.  Dash  used  to  introduce  an 
expression  explaining  and  empha- 
sizing the  "  one  subject." 


INDEX. 


Adverb,  to  be  placed  near  word  it 
modifies,  101. 

Ambiguity,  in  relation  of  pronoun  to 
antecedent,  95, 96 ;  in  use  of  parti- 
ciples, 97. 

And,  misused  as  a  connective,  65; 
not  to  begin  a  sentence,  90. 

Antecedent,  relation  to  pronoun,  94. 

Authority  for  principles  of  composi- 
tion, based  on  the  general  experi- 
ence of  writers,  7 ;  not  based  on 
good  use,  6. 

Average  man,  the,  137. 

Bad  loose  sentence,  89. 

Balanced  sentence,  112. 

Beginning,  of  whole  composition,  a 
place  for  Emphasis,  40;  of  para- 
graph, a  place  for  Emphasis,  71 ; 
of  sentence,  a  place  for  Emphasis, 
105 ;  /  think  not  to  stand  at,  106 ; 
participial  phrase  at,  97. 

Both  .  .  .  and,  101. 

But,  misused  as  a  connective,  65; 
not  to  begin  a  sentence,  90. 

Chronological  arrangement,  in  whole 
composition,  26;  in  paragraph, 
62. 

Climax,  113. 

COHERENCE,  a  principle  of  English 
Composition,  5:  principle  of,  ap- 
plied to  whole  composition,  26-33; 
to  paragraph,  61-70;  to  sentence, 
94-104. 

Connectives,  in  paragraphs,  65-70. 

Co-ordinate  clause  if  detached  vio- 
lates Unity  of  sentence,  90. 

Correspondents,  proper  place  for  in 
sentence,  101. 


"Daily  themes,"  59;  afford  good 
practice  in  Emphasis,  76-78. 

Definite  words,  see  Specific  words. 

Development  of  one  idea  in  a  para- 
graph, 53;  of  sentence  is  in  its 
various  parts,  84;  of  whole  com- 
position in  body  of  theme,  41. 

Digressions  in  paragraphs,  56;  in 
whole  compositions,  20. 

Either  ...  or,  101. 

EMPHASIS,  a  principle  of  English 
Composition,  5:  principle  of,  ap- 
plied to  whole  composition,  34-45  ; 
to  paragraph,  71-78;  to  sentence, 
105-115 ;  explained,  38-40. 

End,  of  whole  composition  a  place 
for  Emphasis,  42-44;  of  para- 
graph a  place  for  Emphasis,  72 ; 
of  sentence  a  place  for  Emphasis, 
105. 

English  Composition  governed  by 
the  principles  of  Unity,  Coherence, 
and  Emphasis,  5. 

Etymology,  study  of,  121. 

Even,  101. 

Examples  employ  specific  words, 
126. 

Experience  of  writers  the  authority 
for  good  use,  7. 

False  beginning,  in  whole  composi- 
tion, 18-20;  participial  construc- 
tion, 98. 

General  words,  relation  of,  to  spe- 
cific words  explained,  121 ;  how 
used  properly,  123 ;  how  misused, 
127. 


149 


150 


INDEX. 


Good  use,  defined,  6 ;  nature  of  au- 
thority of,  6. 

Grammatical  clearness,  Coherence 
of  sentence  dependent  on,  94;  re- 
lation indicated  by  position  of 
words,  100. 

Hackneyed  words,  12G. 

Idiom,  English  must  not  be  sacri- 
ficed to  Emphasis,  107. 

Instruments  of  theme-writing,  words 
and  ideas,  3. 

"Introduction"  false  beginning  of 
a  theme,  20. 

/  think,  not  needed  to  give  Unity  of 
expression,  25 ;  not  to  begin  a  sen- 
tence, 106. 

Loose  sentence,  defined,  88;  "bad," 


Neither  .  .  .  nor,  101. 
Not  only  .  .  .  but  also,  101. 

Object,  writer  always  should  have 
an,  135. 

Obscurity  in  relation  of  pronoun  and 
antecedent,  96;  in  use  of  partici- 
ple, 98-100. 

Only,  101. 

On  the  one  hand .  .  .  on  the  other 
hand,  101. 

Organic  relation  of  parts  of  sen- 
tence, 86. 

PARAGRAPH,  body  of,  the  place  for 
details,  72;  construction  of,  gov- 
erned by  principles  of  composition, 
5;  development  of  a  single  idea, 
53;  digressions  in,  56;  first  may 
indicate  plan  of  theme,  31;  how 
related  to  whole  composition,  53; 
principle  of  Unity  applied  to,  53-^ 
60;  principle  of  Coherence  applied 
to,  61-70;  principle  of  Emphasis 
applied  to,  71-78;  sequence  of 
ideas  in,  62-64 ;  test  for  Unity  of, 
57 ;  transition,  in  whole  composi- 


tion, 30;  violations  of  Unity  in, 
54-58. 

Participial  construction,  false,  98; 
phrase  at  beginning  of  sentence, 
97 ;  phrase  detached  from  sentence 
violates  Unity,  91. 

Participle,  ambiguous  or  obscure,  99. 

Periodic  sentence,  defined,  86;  has 
Unity,  87. 

Point  of  view,  defined,  23 ;  value  of, 
23. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  COMPOSITION,  basis 
of  authority  for,  6-8 ;  derived 
from  the  general  principles  which 
govern  the  undertakings  of  life,  5 ; 
govern  construction  of  whole  com- 
position, paragraph,  and  sentence, 
5 ;  named,  5. 

Pronoun,  relation  to  antecedent,  94  ; 
relative,  to  be  placed  near  its  an- 
tecedent, 101. 

Proportions  of  whole  composition 
indicate  Emphasis,  34-37. 

Relative  values  of  ideas,  34. 

SENTENCE,  bad  loose,  89;  balanced, 
112;  climax  in,  113;  connecting, 
in  whole  composition,  32;  con- 
struction of,  governed  by  princi- 
ples of  composition,  6;  develop- 
ment of,  is  in  its  various  parts,  84 ; 
English  idiom  in,  not  to  be  sacri- 
ficed to  Emphasis,  107 ;  false  par- 
ticipial construction  in,  98 ;  gram- 
matical relation  of  parts  of,  should 
be  evident,  94;  loose,  defined,  88; 
not  to  begin  with  and  or  but,  90 ; 
not  to  begin  with  /  think,  106; 
participial  phrase  at  beginning  of, 
97;  participial  phrase  detached 
from,  91;  parts  of,  have  organic 
relation,  86;  periodic,  defined,  86; 
periodic,  value  of,  87 ;  principle  of 

,  Unity  applied  to,  83-93 ;  principle 
of  Coherence  applied  to,  94-104 ; 
principle  of  Emphasis  applied  to, 
105-115  ;  pronouns  in,  94 ;  proper 
place  in,  for  correspondents,  102; 
uniformity  of  construction  in,  102 ; 


INDEX. 


151 


words  or  clauses  associated  in 
thought  should  be  associated  in 
expression,  100. 

Sequence  of  ideas  in  paragraph,  61- 
(>4. 

Specific  words,  employed  in  exam- 
ples, 126;  relation  of,  to  general 
words,  121 ;  value  of,  123. 

Subordinate  clause  if  detached  from 
sentence  violates  Unity,  91. 

Summary,  an  aid  to  Coherence  of 
whole  composition,  30;  gives  Em- 
phasis at  end  of  whole  composi- 
tion, 43. 

Synonyms,  study  of,  121. 

Test  for  Unity  of  paragraph,  57. 

Title,  distinguished  from  subject  of 
theme,  12 ;  must  fit  subject  of 
theme,  13;  not  to  be  connected 
with  first  line  of  theme,  14. 

Uniformity  of  construction  in  sen- 
tence gives  Coherence,  102-104. 

UNITY,  a  principle  of  English  Com- 
position, 5:  principle  of,  applied 
to  whole  composition,  15-25 ;  to 
paragraph,  53-60 ;  to  sentence,  83- 
93. 


Violation  of  Unity,  in  whole  compo- 
sition, 18-21;  in  paragraph,  54-57 ; 
in  sentence,  88-92. 

Vocabulary,  hackneyed,  126;  of  an 
educated  man,  120. 

While,  at  beginning  of  sentence,  91. 

WHOLE  COMPOSITION,  chronological 
arrangement  in,  26;  connecting 
sentences  in,  32 ;  construction  of, 
governed  by  principles  of  compo- 
sition, 5;  digressions,  20;  false 
beginnings,  18-20;  "Introduc- 
tions," 20;  plan  of,  indicated  in 
first  paragraph,  31 ;  point  of  view, 
23 ;  principle  of  Unity  applied  to, 
15-25;  principle  of  Coherence  ap- 
plied to,  26-33;  principle  of  Em- 
phasis applied  to,  34-45;  propor- 
tions of,  34-37 ;  selection  of  ma- 
terial for,  15-18;  summary  in,  30; 
transition  paragraphs  in,  30; 
Unity  of  expression,  22. 

WORDS,  general,  explained,  121; 
hackneyed,  126;  number  of,  in 
English  language,  119;  specific, 
employed  in  examples,  126;  spe- 
cific, explained,  121;  study  of 
etymology  of,  121 ;  study  of  syno- 
nyms, 121. 


ENGLISH. 


Introduction  to  Browning. 

By  HIRAM  CORSON,  LL.  D.,  Professor  of  Rhetoric  and  English  Literature  in 
Cornell  University.  Cloth.  348  pages.  Retail  price,  #1.50.  Special  price  for 
class  use. 

THE  purpose  of  this  volume  is  to  afford  some  aid  and  guidance  to 
the  study  of  Robert  Browning's  Poetry,  which,  being  the  most 
complexly  subjective  of  all  English  poetry,  is,  for  that  reason  alone,  the 
most  difficult.  And  then  the  poet's  favorite  art  form,  the  dramatic,  or 
rather  psychologic,  monologue,  which  is  quite  original  with  himself, 
and  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  constitution  of  his  genius,  and  to  the 
revelation  of  themselves  by  the  several  "  dramatis  personae,"  presents 
certain  structural  difficulties,  but  difficulties  which,  with  an  increased 
familiarity,  grow  less  and  less.  The  exposition  presented  in  the 
Introduction,  of  its  constitution  and  skillful  management,  and  the 
Arguments  given  to  the  several  poems  included  in  this  volume,  will, 
it  is  hoped,  reduce,  if  not  altogether  remove,  the  difficulties  of  this 
kind.  In  the  same  section  of  the  Introduction  certain  peculiarities  of 
the  poet's  diction,  which  sometimes  give  a  check  to  the  reader's  under- 
standing of  a  passage,  are  presented  and  illustrated. 

The  following  is  the  Table  of  Contents  :  — 

I.  The  Spiritual  Ebb  and  Flow  exhibited  in  English  Poetry  from  Chaucer 
to  Tennyson  and  Browning.  II.  The  Idea  of  Personality  and  of  Art,  as  an 
intermediate  agency  of  Personality,  as  embodied  in  Browning's  Poetry.  (Read 
before  the  Browning  Society  of  London  in  1882.)  III.  Browning's  Obscurity. 
IV.  Browning's  Verse.  V.  Arguments  of  the  Poems.  VI.  Poems.  (Under 
this  head  are  thirty-three  representative  poems,  the  Arguments  of  which  are 
given  in  the  preceding  section.) 

We  publish  a  special  brochure  containing  much  that  will  be  oj 
interest  to  students  of  JSr owning.  It  is  sent  free  on  application. 


Extract  from  a  letter  from 
Robert  Browning :  Let  it  remain  as 
an  assurance  to  younger  poets  that  after 
fifty  years  work,  unattended  by  any  con- 
spicuous recognition,  an  over-payment  may 
be  made,  i  f  there  is  such  another  munifi- 
cent appreciator  as  I  have  been  privileged 
to  find  in  Professor  Corson  ;  in  which 
case,  let  them,  even  if  more  deserving,  be 
equally  grateful. 


Extract  from  a  letter  from  Rob- 
ert Browning  to  Dr.  Furnivall. 

founder  of  the  Browning  Society  of  Lon- 
don: If  your  society  had  produced 
nothing  more  than  Professor  Corson's  pa- 
per, I  should  feel  abundantly  grateful. 

F.  A.  March,  Prof,  in  Lafayette 
Coll.  :  An  eloquent  and  acute  book.  1 
hope  it  may  pay  as  well  in  money  as  it 
must  in  good  name. 


86 


ENGLISH. 


Introduction  to  Shakespeare. 

By  HIRAM  CORSON,  LL.D..,  Professor  of  Rhetoric  and  English  Literature  in 
Cornell  University.  Cloth.  400  pages.  Retail  price,  $1.50.  Special  price  for 
class  use. 

HPHIS  work  indicates  to  the  student  some  lines  of  Shakespearean 
-L  thought  which  will  serve  to  introduce  him  to  the  study  of  the 
Plays  as  plays.  The  general  introductory  chapter  is  followed  by 
chapters  on :  The  Shakespeare-Bacon  Controversy,  —  The  Authen- 
ticity of  the  First  Folio,  —  The  Chronology  of  the  Plays,  — 
Shakespeare's  Verse,  —  The  Latin  and  Anglo-Saxon  Elements  of 
Shakespeare's  English.  The  larger  portion  of  the  book  is  devoted 
to  commentaries  and  critical  chapters  upon  Romeo  and  Juliet,  King 
John,  Much  Ado  about  Nothing,  Hamlet,  Macbeth,  and  Antony  and 
Cleopatra.  These  aim  to  present  the  points  of  view  demanded  for  a 
proper  appreciation  of  Shakespeare's  general  attitude  toward  things, 
and  his  resultant  dramatic  art,  rather  than  the  textual  study  of  the 
plays.  The  book  is  also  accompanied  by  examination  questions. 

This  work  is  a  scholarly  and  suggestive  addition  to  Shakespeare 
criticism,  especially  suited,  by  reason  of  the  author's  long  experience 
as  a  teacher,  for  students'  use,  and  also  valuable,  by  reason  of  its 
independence  of  opinion,  originality,  and  learning,  to  all  lovers  of 
Shakespeare. 

The  Nation :  It  exemplifies  the 
spirit  in  which  Shakespeare  should  be 
studied,  standing  squarely  against  the  met- 
aphysical and  moralizing  perversion,  the 
superfine  intellectuality,  and  all  the  mis- 
conceptions of  dramatic  art  and  confusion 
of  aesthetic  standards  which  came  to  us 
from  Germany.  Altogether,  so  excellent 
a  volume  of  Shakespeare  criticism  has  not 
been  put  forth  by  an  American  scholar  in 
many  a  day.  Teachers  and  students  both 
may  profit  by  it  as  a  model  of  how  to  learn 


in  this  particular  subject. 

The  Tablet,  London  :  It  is  delightful 
reading.  While  purporting  to  be  merely  a 
hand-book  for  students,  it  proves  to  be  a 
commentary  of  a  very  high  order.  It  is  in"" 
handy  form  and  well  printed  and  can  be 
heartily  recommended  to  all  students  of 
toe  world-poet. 


Prof.  T.  W.  Hunt,  Princeton,  in 
Mod.  Lang.  Notes  ;  Its  two  cardinal  merits 
are  suggestiveness  and  intensity.  It  holds 
the  reader  to  the  page  and  makes  him 
ponder  as  he  reads.  Had  we  space  we 
could  collate  not  a  few  paragraphs,  so 
potent  and  trenchant  as  to  be  worth  the 
remembrance  of  every  student  of  dramatic 
art.  The  style  is  stimulating  and  con- 
firms the  principle  that  literary  criticism, 
at  its  best,  is  creative  and  vital.  Prof. 
Corson  deals  with  Shakespeare  as  a 
student  should  deal  with  genius.  This 
method  is  catholic,  sympathetic  and 
psychologic  rather  than  verbal  and  micro- 
scopic. Less  "peeping  and  botanizing" 
and  a  more  profound  inlook  and  a  more 
spacious  outlook  is  what  is  needed  in 
Shakespearian  study,  and  it  is  a  need  that 
Professor  Corson  has  done  much  to  meet 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  87 

The  Arden  Shakespeare. 

The  Greater  Plays  in  their  literary  aspect.  One  play  in  each  volume,  with  In- 
troduction, Notes,  Essay  on  Metre,  and  Glossary.  Based  on  the  Globe  text. 
From  144  to  224  pages.  Cloth.  Price,  40  cents  a  volume. 

THIS  edition  presents  the  greater  plays  in  their  literary  aspect,  and 
not  merely  as  material  for  the  study  of  philology  or  grammar. 
Verbal  and  textual  criticism  has  been  included  only  so  far  as  may  serve 
to  help  the  student  in  his  appreciation  of  the  poetry. 

Questions  of  date  and  literary  history  have  been  fully  dealt  with  in 
the  Introductions,  but  the  larger  space  has  been  devoted  to  the  inter- 
pretative rather  than  to  the  matter-of-fact  order  of  scholarship.  Es- 
thetic judgments  are  never  final,  but  the  Editors  have  attempted  to  sug- 
gest points  of  view  from  which  the  analysis  of  dramatic  motive  and 
dramatic  character  may  be  profitably  undertaken. 

In  the  Notes  likewise,  though  it  is  hoped  that  unfamiliar  expressions 
and  allusions  have  been  adequately  explained,  it  has  been  thought 
more  important  to  consider  the  dramatic  value  of  each  scene,  and 
the  part  that  it  plays  in  relation  to  the  whole. 

Each  volume  has  been  provided  with  a  Glossary,  an  Essay  upon 
Metre,  and  an  Index.  Appendices  are  added  upon  points  of  interest 
that  could  not  be  treated  in  the  Introduction  or  the  Notes. 

The  text  is  based  by  the  several  Editors  on  that  of  the  Globe  edi- 
tion. The  following  plays  are  ready  :  — 

HAMLET.  — Edited  by  Edmund  K.  Chambers,  B.A.,  Oxford. 

MACBETH.  —Edited  by  Edmund  K.  Chambers,  B.A.,  Oxford. 

JULIUS  CAESAR. —  Edited  by  Arthur  D.  Innes,  M.A.,  Oxford. 

TWELFTH  NIGHT.  —  Edited  by  Arthur  D.  Innes,  M.A.,  Oxford. 

As  You  LIKE  IT.  —  Edited  by  J.  C.  Smith,  M.A.,  Edinburgh. 

A  MIDSUMMER  NIGHT'S  DREAM.  —  Edited  by  Edmund  K.  Chambers,  B.A. 

CYMBELINE.  —  Edited  by  A.  J.  Wyatt,  M.A.,  Cambridge. 

THE  TEMPEST.  —  Edited  by  F.  S.  Boas,  M.A.,  Oxford.    . 

RICHARD  II.  —  Edited  by  C.  H.  Herford,  L.H.D.,  Cambridge. 

RICHARD  III.  — Edited  by  George  Macdonald,  M.A.,  Oxford. 

HENRY  V.  —  Edited  by  G.  C.  Moore  Smith,  M.A.,  Cambridge. 

In  press.  —  The  Merchant  of  Venice.     The  remaining  plays  are  in  preparation. 

The  Arden  Shakespeare  has  received  the  cordial  commendation  of 
nearly  every  prominent  teacher  of  English  in  this  country. 

Special  circular  containing  opinions  from  Harvard,  Yale,  Johns  Hop- 
kins, Chicago,  Princeton,  Cornell,  Virginia,  and  200  other  representa- 
tive institutions  sent  free  on  request. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE, 

The  Arden  Shakespeare.  The  greater  plays  in  their  literary  aspect,  each  with  intro- 
duction, interpretative  notes,  glossary,  and  essay  on  metre.  45  cts. 

LlOUltOn'S  Literary  Study  Of  the  Bible.  An  account  of  the  leading  forms  of 
literature  represented,  without  reference  to  theological  matters.  $2.00. 

Moulton's  Four  Years  of  Novel-Reading.     A  reader's  guide.    So  cts. 
Hawthorne  and  Lemmon's  American  Literature.    A  manual  for  high  schools 

and  academies.    $1.25. 

Meiklejohn's  History  of  English  Language  and  Literature.    For  high  schools 

and  colleges.     A  compact  and  reliable  statement  of  the  essentials.     90  cts. 

Hodgkins'  Studies  in  English  Literature.  Gives  full  lists  of  aids  for  laboratory 
method.  Scott,  Lamb,  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Byron,  Shelley,  Keats,  Macaulay> 
Dickens,  Thackeray,  Robert  Browning,  Mrs.  Browning,  Carlyle,  George  Eliot,  Tenny- 
son, Rossetti,  Arnold,  Ruskin,  Irving,  Bryant,  Hawthorne,  Longfellow,  Emerson, 
Whittier,  Holmes,  and  Lowell.  A  separate  pamphlet  on  each  author.  Price  5  cts.  each, 
or  per  hundred,  $3.00;  complete  in  cloth  $1.00. 

Scudder's  Shelley's  Prometheus  Unbound,     with  introduction  and  copious 

notes.     70  cts. 

George's  Wordsworth's  Prelude.  Annotated  for  high  school  and  college.  Never 
before  published  alone.  $1.25. 

George's  Selections  from  Wordsworth.  168  poems  chosen  with  a  view  to  illustrate 
the  growth  of  the  poet's  mind  and  art.  $1.50. 

George's  Wordsworth's  Prefaces  and  Essays  on  Poetry.    Contains  the  best  of 

Wordsworth's  prose.    60  cts. 
George's  Webster's  Speeches.      Nine  select  speeches  with  notes.     $1.50. 

George's  Burke's  American  Orations.    Cloth.    65  cts. 

George's  Select  Poems  Of  Burns.  118  poems,  with  introduction,  notes  and  gloss- 
ary. $1.00. 

George's  Tennyson's  Princess.      With  introduction  and  notes.    45  cts. 

Corson's  Introduction  tO  Browning.  A  guide  to  the  study  of  Browning's  Poetry. 
Also  has  33  poems  with  notes.  $1.50. 

Corson's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Shakespeare.    A  critical  study  of 

Shakespeare's  art,  with  examination  questions.     $1.50. 

COOk'S  Jtldlth.  The  Old  English  epic  poem,  with  introduction,  translation,  glossary  and 
fac-simile  page.  $1.60.  Students'  edition  without  translation.  35  cts. 

COOk'3  The  Bible  and  English  Prose  Style.  Approaches  the  study  of  the  Bible 
from  the  literary  side.  60  cts. 

Simonds'  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  and  his  Poems.     168  pages.    With  biography,  and 

critical  analysis  of  his  poems.     75  cts. 
flail's  BeOWUlf.      A  metrical  translation.     $1.00.     Students'  edition.    35  cts, 

Norton's  Heart  Of  Oak  BOOkS.  A  series  of  six  volumes  giving  selections  from  the 
choicest  English  literiture. 

See  also  our  list  of  books  for  the  study  of  the  English  Language. 


D.  C.  HEATH  &  CO.,  PUBLISHERS. 

BOSTON.        NEW  YORK.        CHICAGO. 


BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


APR     7 


APR    3 


JUL  24  1945 


^e 


MAY  31 


U.  C.  BERKELEY 


SEMfONlU 


JUN  1  9 199B 


U,  C.  BERKELEY 


LD  21-100m-7,'39(402s) 


02347 


.1  70560 


